A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

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Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.

How to ... be a reflective practitioner.

Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonaily oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were denned as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior.

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Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female leaders were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness.

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Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men

Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners Nonetheless, there is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development ( conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the context of ongoing organizational work ( practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research that has implications for leadership development ( research context) The overall purpose is to bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building both human and social capital in organizations Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and action learning Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations

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Leadership development:: A review in context

* Introduction * The Ceiling and the Wall: The Double Barrier to the Top * Up or Out: How Women Succeed, How They Derail * Perception Is Reality: The Narrow Band of Acceptable Behavior * Lessons for Success I: Its Not Enough to Work Hard * Lessons for Success II: Its Not Enough to Work Smart * Breaking the Class Ceiling: Making It to General Management * Hitting the Wall: Facing Limits, Finding Alternatives * The Future: Can Women Make It To The Top? * Epilogue: Where Are They Now?

Breaking the glass ceiling : can women reach the top of America's largest corporations?

Web Contents xi Foreword xv John R. Ryan Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxv The Authors xxvii Introduction: Our View of Leadership Development 1 Cynthia D. McCauley, Ellen Van Velsor, Marian N. Ruderman PART ONE Developing Leaders ONE Leader Development Systems 29 Cynthia D. McCauley, Kim Kanaga, Kim Lafferty TWO Learning from Experience 63 Jeffrey Yip, Meena S. Wilson THREE Feedback-Intensive Programs 97 Sara N. King, Laura C. Santana FOUR Leadership Coaching 125 Candice C. Frankovelgia, Douglas D. Riddle F I VE Leader Development and Social Identity 147 Vijayan P. Munusamy, Marian N. Ruderman, Regina H. Eckert S I X Development Programs for Educational Leaders 177 Karen Dyer, Mike Renn SEVEN Leader Development in Times of Change 197 Michael Wakefield, Kerry A. Bunker E I G H T Democratizing Leader Development 221 David G. Altman, Lyndon Rego, Steadman D. Harrison III NINE Evaluating Leader Development 251 Jennifer W. Martineau, Tracy E. Patterson PART TWO Developing Leadership for Organizational Challenges TEN Developing Team Leadership Capability 285 Frederick P. Morgeson, Dennis Lindoerfer, David J. Loring ELEVEN Developing Strategic Leadership 313 Katherine Colarelli Beatty, Bruce Byington TWELVE Developing Globally Responsible Leadership 345 Laura Quinn, Ellen Van Velsor T H I R T E EN Developing Intergroup Leadership 375 Chris Ernst, Kelly M. Hannum, Marian N. Ruderman FOURTEEN Developing Interdependent Leadership 405 Wilfred H. Drath, Charles J. Palus, John B. McGuire Afterword 429 Ellen Van Velsor, Marian N. Ruderman, Cynthia D. McCauley References 435 Name Index 461 Subject Index 469 About the Center for Creative Leadership 481

The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development

This article argues that the current, widely accepted leadership ontology — leaders, followers, and shared goals — is becoming less useful for understanding leadership in contexts that are increasingly peer-like and collaborative. The further development of leadership theory calls for a corresponding development at the level of leadership ontology. Thus, an alternative leadership ontology is proposed: direction, alignment, and commitment. A theoretical framework based on such an ontology is sketched out. It is argued that such a framework can integrate emerging leadership research and ultimately stimulate the development of new leadership theory and practice.

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Direction, alignment, commitment: Toward a more integrative ontology of leadership

The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development. Jossey-Bass Business & Management Series.

From the articles published in the two parts of this special issue as well as an overview of research in leadership and diversity, this chapter discusses directions and implications for diversity leadership research and practice. Drawing from diversity perspectives, we suggest that diversity leadership must consider: (a) the impact of social group identities embedded in organization group identities; (b) the unconscious sociopsychological processes; (c) the political aspects of leadership; and (d) the follower perspectives. From the field of leadership, we highlight four leadership frameworks that we think have the greatest potential to contribute to diversity leadership, namely, (i) attribution theories of leadership and followership, (ii) theories of leadership prototypes, (iii) the leader-member exchange model, and (iv) the behavioral complexity model. In connecting the two fields, we propose new directions for research and discuss practical issues of how organizations can develop diverse and global leaders and how these leaders themselves could lead diversity more effectively.

Ellen Van Velsor

Papers

Breaking the glass ceiling : can women reach the top of America's largest corporations?

The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development

Direction, alignment, commitment: Toward a more integrative ontology of leadership

The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development. Jossey-Bass Business & Management Series.

New directions for research and practice in diversity leadership