In the last decade we have seen a dramatic shift away from sociological explanations of deviant behavior toward developing theoretical perspectives on societal reactions to and definitions of deviance and crime. Labeling and conflict formulations have become major foci of sociological theorizing as well as the sounding boards for most of the controversy and discourse in the field of deviance. This shift in focus was deemed necessary to redress the previous imbalance of attention to the deviant behavior itself (Akers, 1968), and it clearly has had that effect. Unfortunately, it also has led to the neglect of theoretical developments in the etiology of deviant behavior. Neither labeling nor conflict perspectives has offered a general explanation of deviant behavior, although some conflict theorists have offered preliminary but incomplete efforts in that direction (Taylor, et al., 1973; Spitzer, 1975). There have been other efforts directed toward explaining deviant behavior, but these have been fairly narrow in scope; they have usually been limited either to a specific type of deviant behavior or to a restricted range of substantive variables. For example, a good deal of attention has been paid to the modern resurrection of deterrence theory (Gibbs, 1975; 1977; Waldo and Chiricos, 1972, Tittle, 1975; Silberman, 1976; Erickson et al., 1977; Meier and Johnson, 1977; Geerken and Gove, 1977). The scope of deterrence theory has been changed little, however, since its statement by the classical criminologists two centuries ago and is limited to the actual or perceived certainty, severity, and celerity of formally administered legal sanctions for violations of the criminal law. Another example is Travis Hirschi’ s (1969) control (social bonding) theory which is a more general explanation of deviance than deterrence theory, but which is, in turn, primarily restricted to informal social control which comes from individuals being bonded to groups and institutions.

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Social learning and deviant behavior: a specific test of a general theory.

A two-stage psychiatric survey of a random samples of adults aged 18-64 from Camberwell is described. Agency interviewers carried out the first stage (N = 800), using the shorter form of the Present State Examination (PSE). MRC interviewers, using the full PSE, saw a stratified sample of these (N = 310) in the second stage. A second interview was sought with all those of Index of Definition (ID) level 5 and above at the first interview ("cases") and with random sample of those below that level 20.9% refused or were never available for the first interview. Of the 800 subjects successfully interviewed, 10% refused a further interview and 124% of those finally selected for this interview were either unavailable or changed their minds. The MRC data, weighted to represent the whole sample, are used in our analyses. The prevalence of psychiatric disorder as defined in our study was calculated at 6.1% for men and 14.9% for women. Women showed a higher prevalence of disorder in the age-groups 25-34 and 45-54, but in men there was no significant association with age. In contrast to the findings of Brown & Harris (1978), social class did not have a strong association with disorder. Single men had much higher rates than married men, while the reverse was true in women. In both sexes employment was associated with lower rates of disorder. An attempt to explain the high prevalence in women in terms of their role in marriage and child-care was only partly successful.

Epidemiology of mental disorders in Camberwell

Peer cluster theory, socialization characteristics, and adolescent drug use: A path analysis.

Patterns of use of legal and illegal drugs among adolescents, with special emphasis on marijuana, are reviewed. Developmental patterns of drug involvement and a possible maturational trend in early adulthood are highlighted. Correlates, antecedents, and consequences of marijuana use are discussed. Despite dramatic increases in the use of marijuana in American society over the last decade, youths who use marijuana in 1980 show the same pattern of disaffection from major institutions as users in 1967. Many of the factors found to be associated with marijuana at one point in time precede rather than follow from its use. Illicit drugs appear to be used by some adolescents to handle feelings of distress.

Epidemiological and Psychosocial Perspectives on Adolescent Drug Use

Two measures of questionnaire response validity were used in a survey of teenage smoking (student respondents in grades 7-12) in a midwest community. Responses to a confidential questionnaire were validated by responses to an anonymous ""randomized response" instrument and a biochemical measure of smoking (salivary thiocyanate). Both measures support the validity of questionnaire responses. The randomized response measure is an anonymous self-report check on the accuracy of confidential self-reports, and the biochemical measure provides a strong validity measure that is not subject to the problems of deliberate faking. The validity of responses was not significantly affected by the introduction of a "bogus pipeline" condition. In sociological research the standard technique of obtaining self-reports of behavior faces a standard problem, the possible or probable discrepancy between the actual behavior and the report of it. The validity of oral or written reports of behavior is at issue regardless of the behavior measured, but it is especially salient if the information asked for in the interview or survey questionnaire is sensitive, potentially incriminating, or embarrassing. 1 For this reason, the self-report technique was considered inapplicable to studies of deviant behavior until self-report studies of delinquency in the 1950s and early 1960s (Akers; Clark and Wenninger; Short and Nye). Since then, self-report has become the most frequently applied measure of *The research reported here was supported by Grant #HD 00376 of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R. W. Lauer and R. L. Akers, Co-principal Investigators), and by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant #HL 14230 (SCOR in Atherosclerosis), and Grant #HLRO1-20124 (R. M. Lauer, Principal Investigator). ? 1983 The University of North Carolina Press

Eric Josephson

Papers

Drug use: epidemiological and sociological approaches

The Matriarchy: Myth and Reality