An emerging body of multidisciplinary literature has documented the beneficial influence of physical activity engendered through aerobic exercise on selective aspects of brain function. Human and non-human animal studies have shown that aerobic exercise can improve a number of aspects of cognition and performance. Lack of physical activity, particularly among children in the developed world, is one of the major causes of obesity. Exercise might not only help to improve their physical health, but might also improve their academic performance. This article examines the positive effects of aerobic physical activity on cognition and brain function, at the molecular, cellular, systems and behavioural levels. A growing number of studies support the idea that physical exercise is a lifestyle factor that might lead to increased physical and mental health throughout life.

Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition

Accurate assessment is required to assess current and changing physical activity levels, and to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions designed to increase activity levels. This study systematically reviewed the literature to determine the extent of agreement between subjectively (self-report e.g. questionnaire, diary) and objectively (directly measured; e.g. accelerometry, doubly labeled water) assessed physical activity in adults. Eight electronic databases were searched to identify observational and experimental studies of adult populations. Searching identified 4,463 potential articles. Initial screening found that 293 examined the relationship between self-reported and directly measured physical activity and met the eligibility criteria. Data abstraction was completed for 187 articles, which described comparable data and/or comparisons, while 76 articles lacked comparable data or comparisons, and a further 30 did not meet the review's eligibility requirements. A risk of bias assessment was conducted for all articles from which data was abstracted. Correlations between self-report and direct measures were generally low-to-moderate and ranged from -0.71 to 0.96. No clear pattern emerged for the mean differences between self-report and direct measures of physical activity. Trends differed by measure of physical activity employed, level of physical activity measured, and the gender of participants. Results of the risk of bias assessment indicated that 38% of the studies had lower quality scores. The findings suggest that the measurement method may have a significant impact on the observed levels of physical activity. Self-report measures of physical activity were both higher and lower than directly measured levels of physical activity, which poses a problem for both reliance on self-report measures and for attempts to correct for self-report – direct measure differences. This review reveals the need for valid, accurate and reliable measures of physical activity in evaluating current and changing physical activity levels, physical activity interventions, and the relationships between physical activity and health outcomes.

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A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: a systematic review

This review provides the reader with the up-to-date evidence-based basis for prescribing exercise as medicine in the treatment of 26 different diseases: psychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety, stress, schizophrenia); neurological diseases (dementia, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis); metabolic diseases (obesity, hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome, polycystic ovarian syndrome, type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes); cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, cerebral apoplexy, and claudication intermittent); pulmonary diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, cystic fibrosis); musculo-skeletal disorders (osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, back pain, rheumatoid arthritis); and cancer. The effect of exercise therapy on disease pathogenesis and symptoms are given and the possible mechanisms of action are discussed. We have interpreted the scientific literature and for each disease, we provide the reader with our best advice regarding the optimal type and dose for prescription of exercise.

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Exercise as medicine – evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases

The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

Motor Control and Aging: Links to Age-Related Brain Structural, Functional, and Biochemical Effects

Using meta-analytic procedures, this study involved a quantitative synthesis of the difference in physical activity among individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) compared with nondiseased and diseased populations and then examined factors (i.e., moderators) that explain variation in the overall difference in physical activity. We searched MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Current Contents Plus using the key words physical activity, exercise and physical fitness in conjunction with multiple sclerosis; conducted a manual search of bibliographies of the retrieved papers; and contacted study authors about additional studies. Overall, 53 effects were retrieved from 13 studies with 2360 MS participants and yielded a weighted mean effect size (ES) of -0.60 (95% CI = -0.44, -0.77). The weighted mean ES was heterogenous, Q = 1164.11, df = 52, P < 0.0001. There were larger effects with objective versus self-report measures of physical activity, nondiseased versus diseased populations and primary progressive versus relapsing remitting MS. The cumulative evidence suggests that individuals with MS are less physically active than nondiseased, but not diseased, populations.

Physical activity and multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis

http://labs.kch.illinois.edu/Research/Labs/neurocognitive-kinesiology/files/Articles/Hillman_2003_AcuteCardiovascularExerciseAnd.pdf

Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function

Physical activity has been associated with a small improvement in quality of life (QOL) among those with multiple sclerosis (MS). This relationship may be indirect and operate through factors such as disability, fatigue, mood, pain, self-efficacy and social support. The present study examined variables that might account for the relationship between physical activity and QOL in a sample (N = 292) of individuals with a definite diagnosis of MS. The participants wore an accelerometer for 7 days and then completed self-report measures of physical activity, QOL, disability, fatigue, mood, pain, self-efficacy and social support. The data were analysed using covariance modelling in Mplus 3.0. The model provided an excellent fit for the data (chi(2) = 51.33, df = 18, p < 0.001, standardised root mean squared residual = 0.03, comparative fit index = 0.98). Those who were more physically active reported lower levels of disability (gamma = -0.50), depression (gamma = -0.31), fatigue (gamma = -0.46) and pain (gamma = -0.19) and higher levels of social support (gamma = 0.20), self-efficacy for managing MS (gamma = 0.41), and self-efficacy for regular physical activity (gamma = 0.49). In turn, those who reported lower levels of depression (beta = -0.37), anxiety (beta = -0.15), fatigue (beta = -0.16) and pain (beta = -0.08) and higher levels of social support (beta = 0.26) and self-efficacy for controlling MS (beta = 0.17) reported higher levels of QOL. The observed pattern of relationships supports the possibility that physical activity is indirectly associated with improved QOL in individuals with MS via depression, fatigue, pain, social support and self-efficacy for managing MS.

Physical activity and quality of life in multiple sclerosis: Intermediary roles of disability, fatigue, mood, pain, self-efficacy and social support

Objective. The study used meta-analytic procedures to examine the overall effect of exercise training interventions on walking mobility among individuals with multiple sclerosis. Methods. A search ...

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1545968308320641

Effect of exercise training on walking mobility in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis.

Background: Since 1982, the National Collegiate Athletic Association has used the Injury Surveillance System (ISS) to collect injury and athlete-exposure data from a representative sample of colleg...

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Erin M. Snook

Papers

Physical activity and multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis

Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function

Physical activity and quality of life in multiple sclerosis: Intermediary roles of disability, fatigue, mood, pain, self-efficacy and social support

Effect of exercise training on walking mobility in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis.

National collegiate athletic association injury surveillance system: review of methods for 2004-2005 through 2013-2014 data collection.