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Purpose – Facing the multiplication of entrepreneurship education programmes (EEP) and the increasing resources allocated, there is a need to develop a common framework to evaluate the design of those programmes. The purpose of this article is to propose such a framework, based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Design/methodology/approach – TPB is a relevant tool to model the development of entrepreneurial intention through pedagogical processes. The independent variables are the characteristics of the EEP and the dependent variables are the antecedents of entrepreneurial behaviour. To illustrate and test the relevance of the evaluation methodology, a pilot study is conducted. Findings – Data are consistent and reliable, considering the small scale of this experiment. The EEP assessed had a strong measurable impact on the entrepreneurial intention of the students, while it had a positive, but not very significant, impact on their perceived behavioural control. Research implications/limitations – This is a first step of an ambitious research programme aiming at producing theory-grounded knowledge. Reproduction of the experiment will allow researchers to test how specific characteristics of an EEP influence its impact and how the impact differs across several cohorts of students. Those comparisons will serve to improve a priori the design of EEP. Originality/value – The new methodology is built on a robust theoretical framework and based on validated measurement tools. Its originality is about a relative – longitudinal – measure of impact over time and a particular use of the theory of planned behaviour which is seen as an assessment framework.

Assessing the Impact of Entrepreneurship Education Programmes: A New Methodology

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research. A growing number of studies use entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. However, a substantial part of this research lacks systematization and categorization, and there seems to be a tendency to start anew with every study. Therefore, there is a need to take stock of current knowledge in this field. In this sense, this paper carries out a review of the literature on entrepreneurial intentions. A total of 409 papers addressing entrepreneurial intention, published between 2004 and 2013 (inclusive), have been analyzed. The purpose and contribution of this paper is to offer a clearer picture of the sub-fields in entrepreneurial intention research, by concentrating on two aspects. Firstly, it reviews recent research by means of a citation analysis to categorize the main areas of specialization currently attracting the attention of the academic community. Secondly, a thematic analysis is carried out to identify the specific themes being researched within each category. Despite the large number of publications and their diversity, the present study identifies five main research areas, plus an additional sixth category for a number of new research papers that cannot be easily classified into the five areas. Within those categories, up to twenty-five different themes are recognized. A number of research gaps are singled out within each of these areas of specialization, in order to induce new ways and perspectives in the entrepreneurial intention field of research that may be fruitful in filling these gaps.

A systematic literature review on entrepreneurial intentions: citation, thematic analyses, and research agenda

Using a teaching model framework, we systematically review empirical evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) in higher education on a range of learning outcomes, analysing 159 published articles from 2004-2016. The teaching model framework allows us for the first time to start rigorously examining relationships between pedagogical methods and specific outcomes. Re-confirming past reviews and meta-analyses, we find that EE impact research still predominantly focuses on short-term and subjective outcome measures and tends to severely under-describe the actual pedagogies being tested. Moreover, we use our review to provide an up-to-date and empirically rooted call for less obvious, yet greatly promising, new or underemphasised directions for future research on the impact of university-based entrepreneurship education. This includes, for example, the use of novel impact indicators related to emotion and mindset, focus on the impact indicators related to the intention-to-behaviour transition, and explore the reasons for some of the contradictory findings in impact studies including person-, context- and pedagogical model-specific moderators.

The impact of entrepreneurship education in higher education: A systematic review and research agenda

The literature of small business and entrepreneurship is explored. It is established that, although there is an overlap between entrepreneurial firms and small business firms, they are different entities. Using the 1934 work of Schumpeter and recognizing the additions to the field of current writers, a conceptual framework is established for the differentiation of entrepreneurs from small business owners. Keywords: entrepreneurial, Small business

Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization

Mentoring is reputed to support the career choices and development of individuals in various contexts. This study is one of the few that investigates the effect of mentoring on career satisfaction and retention of novice entrepreneurs. We surveyed 360 novice entrepreneurs who had been supported by a mentor. Our analyses demonstrate the direct effect of mentoring on entrepreneurial self-efficacy, which mediates the relationship between satisfaction of being an entrepreneur and the intention of staying in the profession. Moreover, mentoring not only has an indirect effect on satisfaction; it seems to have a negative direct effect on intention. This result could possibly be due to the awareness of novices regarding the limitations of their initial business project. Given that entrepreneurs are closely tied to their business project, mentoring should come earlier in the entrepreneurial process in order to influence career satisfaction and retention of novice entrepreneur.

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Developing attitudes toward an entrepreneurial career through mentoring: the mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy

In this study, we aimed to determine whether mentor intervention styles influence benefits gained by novice entrepreneurs through their mentoring relationship. An empirical study conducted with 360 mentees who had received mentoring services shows that an intervention style which combines a maieutic approach with mentor involvement produced the best results. This style made it possible for the mentor to play a more decisive role with the mentee and also fostered the development of certain mentee outcomes. Mentoring program directors can make their mentors aware of the importance of their mentoring style to maximize outcomes for novice entrepreneurs.

The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships

Mentoring can be seen as relevant if not essential in the continuing professional development of entrepreneurs. In the present study, we seek to understand how to maximize the learning that occurs through the mentoring process. To achieve this, we consider various elements that the literature suggested are associated with successful mentoring and test a comprehensive model with the main parts of the mentoring process. Using a structural equation model on a sample of 360 Canadian-mentored entrepreneurs, the study demonstrates that mentor's career-related functions are the most effective factor in the development of learning, followed by psychological functions and the role model function. In order to foster these functions, trust and perceived similarity are needed to build a strong and high-quality relationship as is mentee self-disclosure. These results are of interest because they highlight the different elements that influence learning through mentoring and show the mediating role of trust, perceived similarity and mentor's functions between the mentee's self-disclosure and learning.

/pdf/mentoring-as-professional-development-for-novice-rsel539u9q.pdf

Mentoring as Professional Development for Novice Entrepreneurs: Maximizing the Learning.

In the past few years, we have witnessed the birth of new mentoring programs, which consist in twining a novice entrepreneur with an experienced entrepreneur (also known as business mentoring). The literature on mentoring in large organization (where the protege is an employee in the hierarchy) highlights that the mentor exerts three main categories of functions: psychological, career-related, and role model. This research aims to explore and to validate mentor functions for novice entrepreneurs. At first, a qualitative analysis based on focus groups including 51 mentees and 8 mentors was carried out. The theoretical proposal was then validated by a group of three experts in business mentoring. Finally, confirmatory factor analyses using LISREL were carried out on a sample of 360 mentees taking part in the mentoring program of the Fondation de l'entrepreneurship network, an organization which has twined more than 3500 novice entrepreneurs since the year 2000. The analyses confirm four psychological functions (reflector, reassurance, motivation, and confidant), four entrepreneurial career-related functions (integration, information support, confrontation, and guide) and a role model function. These results are useful to raise the awareness of volunteer mentors about functions they may likely exert when they are twined with novice entrepreneurs. INTRODUCTION For the past few years, we have implemented programs to support novice entrepreneurs in the years following the starting of their business. One of the processes proposed involves pairing up a novice entrepreneur with an experienced entrepreneur, who provides advice and ways of thinking to help the novice avoid costly and even fatal mistakes (St- Jean et Audet, Under press; Sullivan, 2000). For example, the American SCORE1 program, founded in the seventies and funded by Small Business Administration (SBA), supported more than eight million small business managers through its network of over 12,000 volunteer mentors. In Europe, other similar initiatives exist such as that supported by the Business Link in England, the Mentor Eget Foretag program in Sweden or France Initiative (in France), with nearly 5,000 volunteer mentors, to name just a few of these programs. Some studies suggest that novice entrepreneurs may benefit from many types of different outcomes, including cognitive learning (new knowledge and skills, improved business vision and opportunity recognition), affective learning (reduced solitude, improved self-efficacy and self-image), new contacts, and even changes in the SME (increased sales or improved profitability) (Bisk, 2002; Nandram, 2003; StJean, 2008; Wikholm et al, 2005). Although outcomes for the novice entrepreneur are better known, mentor roles helping their development are practically unknown to this day. Yet, scientific literature on mentoring in other contexts has explored mentor roles on numerous occasions, particularly in large organizations where an employee identified as having potential (protege ) is matched with another in a hierarchical position (mentor). These mentor functions even constitute a measure of the mentoring received by the protege. The present study will attempt to bridge this gap by documenting mentor functions in entrepreneurs within the context of the business mentoring network of the Fondation de I 'entrepreneurship. To do so, a review of the scientific literature used to define the concept will first be presented. Since this literature has not offered enough details on the study's subject, an exploratory analysis was necessary and will then be exposed. Subsequently, the entire confirmatory study, which proves the empirical validity of mentor functions, will be presented. Finally, results will be discussed as well as avenues for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW Mentor functions in large organizations Kram (1985) suggests that mentors plays two main functions towards the protege: a career-related function and a psychological function. …

Mentor Functions for Novice Entrepreneurs

One of the main goals of entrepreneurial mentoring programs is to strengthen the mentees’ self-efficacy. However, the conditions in which entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) is developed through mentoring are not yet fully explored. The purpose of this paper is to test the combined effects of mentee’s learning goal orientation (LGO) and perceived similarity with the mentor and demonstrates the role of these two variables in mentoring relationships.
The current study is based on a sample of 360 novice Canadian entrepreneurs who completed an online questionnaire. The authors used a cross-sectional analysis as research design.
Findings indicate that the development of ESE is optimal when mentees present low levels of LGO and perceive high similarities between their mentor and themselves. Mentees with high LGO decreased their level of ESE with more in-depth mentoring received.
This study investigated a formal mentoring program with volunteer (unpaid) mentors. Generalization to informal mentoring relationships needs to be tested.
The study shows that, in order to effectively develop self-efficacy in a mentoring situation, LGO should be taken into account. Mentors can be trained to modify mentees’ LGO to increase their impact on this mindset and mentees’ ESE.
This is the first empirical study that demonstrates the effects of mentoring on ESE and reveals a triple moderating effect of LGO and perceived similarity in mentoring relationships.

https://hal-audencia.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01738307/document

Etienne St-Jean

Papers

Developing attitudes toward an entrepreneurial career through mentoring: the mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy

The Effect of Mentor Intervention Style in Novice Entrepreneur Mentoring Relationships

Mentoring as Professional Development for Novice Entrepreneurs: Maximizing the Learning.

Mentor Functions for Novice Entrepreneurs

Can less be more? Mentoring functions, learning goal orientation, and novice entrepreneurs’ self-efficacy