Human-elephant conflict is a major conservation concern in elephant range countries. A variety of management strategies have been developed and are practiced at different scales for preventing and mitigating human-elephant conflict. However, human-elephant conflict remains pervasive as the majority of existing prevention strategies are driven by site-specific factors that only offer short-term solutions, while mitigation strategies frequently transfer conflict risk from one place to another. Here, we review current human-elephant conflict management strategies and describe an interdisciplinary conceptual approach to manage species coexistence over the long-term. Our proposed model identifies shared resource use between humans and elephants at different spatial and temporal scales for development of long-term solutions. The model also highlights the importance of including anthropological and geographical knowledge to find sustainable solutions to managing human-elephant conflict.

Human-Elephant Conflict: A Review of Current Management Strategies and Future Directions

Every 10 years, the IUCN World Parks Congress (WPC) brings together conservation experts from around the world to share information and ideas, and set a global policy agenda for protected areas. The 5th IUCN World Parks Congress was held in Durban, South Africa from September 8–17, 2004, and was attended by approximately 3,000 protected area experts, practitioners, and decision makers. The 5th WPC brought human–wildlife conflict (HWC) to the global stage as part of an effort to address current challenges facing protected area management and conservation. The HWC recommendation (included in this issue) was informed by a technical workshop that was part of the WPC proceedings. The workshop entitled “Creating Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict” combined vigorous debate on human–wildlife conflict issues with a technical focus on useful outputs for those working in the profession. The workshop created “a unique opportunity to take stock [of the issues] ... provide an honest appraisal of progress and setbacks; and chart the course for protected areas over the next decade and beyond” (IUCN, 2003). This article summarizes recommendations from the workshop and introduces the other articles in this special issue of Human Dimensions of Wildlife. The articles that follow are written by presenters and participants of the “Creating

Peer-Reviewed Articles Creating Coexistence between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict

Understanding human-wildlife conflict is an important first step in the conservation of highly endangered species that can have adverse effects on human communities, such as elephants. To gain insights into variables that shape attitudes toward elephant conservation in Asia, we surveyed 410 households and 46 plantation owners in seven villages around the Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary in western Thailand, an area of high human-elephant conflict. We sought to evaluate how past experiences with elephants (positive or negative), as well as socio-economic variables (age, income level, gender, and employment type) affect attitudes toward elephant conservation and coexistence in this area. In addition, we quantified deterrence methods currently used and identify potential mitigation strategies supported by community members. In general, less supportive attitudes toward elephant conservation and coexistence were held by individuals older than 35 years of age, those who had previously had experienced negative interactions with elephants, those with lower incomes, and those working in the agricultural sector. Conversely, those who had received benefits from living near elephants (e.g., supplemental income or feelings of pride from hosting volunteers or participating in conservation work) had more supportive views of elephant coexistence. Plantation owners reported using a variety of deterrence methods with varying success, with firecrackers being the most commonly utilized method. Community members identified several potentially beneficial mitigation strategies including forest restorations and patrol teams, adding water sources to wild elephant habitat, and education of local school and community groups. Overall, our results highlight the value of community members receiving benefits from living near elephants and suggest that special incentives may be needed for demographic groups disproportionately affected by elephants (e.g. those at lower income levels, those working in agriculture). A combination of these and other approaches will be required if human-elephant coexistence in western Thailand is to be realized.

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Human-elephant conflict in western Thailand: Socio-economic drivers and potential mitigation strategies.

Wildlife species damaging crops can cause substantial losses to farmers and at the same time create negative attitudes against wildlife and conservation efforts that may result in negative interactions against wildlife and lead to human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). For the analysis of negative interactions between humans and terrestrial wildlife species, a globally applicable scheme for monitoring was developed and applied over 6 years in study areas of two Asian (Nepal and India) and two African (Zambia and Tanzania) countries. Factors influencing crop consumption by eight different groups of herbivores were monitored and analyzed using generalized linear models. Seasonality, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop seem to play an important role in the crop damaging behavior of herbivores. Crop consumers such as elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus), zebra (Equus quagga spp.) and boars/hogs (Sus scrofa, Potamocherus larvatus and Phacochoerus africanus) show preferences for harvested and/or maturing crops. Rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) and antelopes/deer (Taurotragus oryx, Aepyceros melampus, Boselaphus tragocamelus and Axis axis) damage the highest numbers of fields with crops at an intermediate growth stage. The findings of this study can inform management of HWCs in areas where people and wildlife coexist. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the benefits of standardized HWC assessments in order to compare data from different continents and between different species to be able to draw generalized conclusions for the management of HWC.

Seasonality, crop type and crop phenology influence crop damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia

The potential of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) to reduce crop damages by Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)

Throughout the sub-Saharan African countries, in which populations of the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) exist, farmers come into conflict with these pachyderms. Attracted by nutritious crops on the fields they destroy substantial amounts of harvest by crossing through the plantations and feeding on the crops. As this species is protected and listed as a threatened species by the IUCN Red List and therefore must not be killed, new ways need to be found to repel or not attract the pachyderms to fields. The replacement of crops, which are attractive to elephants by such, which are not attractive, might be a solution for the agricultural sector in and close to elephant habitats. A field experiment has been conducted to test the attractiveness of potential alternative crops (ginger, onion, garlic, and lemon grass) compared to a control plot with maize as a very attractive crop. Elephants visited both, the test crops and the control of maize and completely destroyed the maize 6 weeks prior to its harvest time. In contrast, the test crops were only slightly damaged, mostly through trampling. In a very late state of the experiment lemon grass and ginger were consumed by the elephants in small quantities. Yields that have been obtained from the test crops would have exceeded the yields of the maize. The selection of crops which are less attractive to large herbivores such as elephants needs to be considered as a strategy to reduce conflicts between farmers and endangered wildlife species.

Eva M. Gross

Papers

Cultivating alternative crops reduces crop losses due to African elephants

Seasonality, crop type and crop phenology influence crop damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia

The potential of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) to reduce crop damages by Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)

Does traditional and advanced guarding reduce crop losses due to wildlife? A comparative analysis from Africa and Asia

Elephants in the village: Causes and consequences of property damage in Asia and Africa