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Biomechanics And Motor Control Of Human Movement

During the stages of long-term athlete development (LTAD), resistance training (RT) is an important means for (i) stimulating athletic development, (ii) tolerating the demands of long-term training and competition, and (iii) inducing long-term health promoting effects that are robust over time and track into adulthood. However, there is a gap in the literature with regards to optimal RT methods during LTAD and how RT is linked to biological age. Thus, the aims of this scoping review were (i) to describe and discuss the effects of RT on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes, (ii) to introduce a conceptual model on how to appropriately implement different types of RT within LTAD stages, and (iii) to identify research gaps from the existing literature by deducing implications for future research. In general, RT produced small-to-moderate effects on muscular fitness and athletic performance in youth athletes with muscular strength showing the largest improvement. Free weight, complex, and plyometric training appear to be well-suited to improve muscular fitness and athletic performance. In addition, balance training appears to be an important preparatory (facilitating) training program during all stages of LTAD but particularly during the early stages. As youth athletes become more mature, specificity, and intensity of RT methods increase. This scoping review identified research gaps that are summarized in the following and that should be addressed in future studies: (i) to elucidate the influence of gender and biological age on the adaptive potential following RT in youth athletes (especially in females), (ii) to describe RT protocols in more detail (i.e., always report stress and strain-based parameters), and (iii) to examine neuromuscular and tendomuscular adaptations following RT in youth athletes.

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Effects of Resistance Training in Youth Athletes on Muscular Fitness and Athletic Performance: A Conceptual Model for Long-Term Athlete Development.

Energy Sources I

Rate of force development (RFD) refers to the ability of the neuromuscular system to increase contractile force from a low or resting level when muscle activation is performed as quickly as possible, and it is considered an important muscle strength parameter, especially for athletes in sports requiring high-speed actions. The assessment of RFD has been used for strength diagnosis, to monitor the effects of training interventions in both healthy populations and patients, discriminate high-level athletes from those of lower levels, evaluate the impairment in mechanical muscle function after acute bouts of eccentric muscle actions and estimate the degree of fatigue and recovery after acute exhausting exercise. Notably, the evaluation of RFD in human skeletal muscle is a complex task as influenced by numerous distinct methodological factors including mode of contraction, type of instruction, method used to quantify RFD, devices used for force/torque recording and ambient temperature. Another important aspect is our limited understanding of the mechanisms underpinning rapid muscle force production. Therefore, this review is primarily focused on (i) describing the main mechanical characteristics of RFD; (ii) analysing various physiological factors that influence RFD; and (iii) presenting and discussing central biomechanical and methodological factors affecting the measurement of RFD. The intention of this review is to provide more methodological and analytical coherency on the RFD concept, which may aid to clarify the thinking of coaches and sports scientists in this area.

Physiological and methodological aspects of rate of force development assessment in human skeletal muscle.

Sole, CJ, Mizuguchi, S, Sato, K, Moir, GL, and Stone, MH. Phase characteristics of the countermovement jump force-time curve: a comparison of athletes by jumping ability. J Strength Cond Res 32(4): 1155-1165, 2018-The purpose of this study was to compare the phase characteristics of the countermovement jump (CMJ) force-time (F-t) curve between athletes based on jumping ability. An initial sample of one-hundred fifty Division-I collegiate athletes were ranked based on CMJ height. Three performance groups were then formed by taking the top, middle, and lower 30 athletes (15 men and 15 women) from the sample. Phases of the CMJ F-t curve were determined and then characterized by their duration, magnitude, area (impulse), and shape (shape factor). A series of 3-way mixed analysis of variance were used to determine statistical differences in phase characteristics between performance groups as well as between male and female athletes. Statistically significant phase-by-performance group interactions were observed for relative phase magnitude (p < 0.001), relative phase impulse (p < 0.001), and shape factor (p = 0.002). Phase-by-sex interactions were statistically significant for both relative phase magnitude (p < 0.001) and relative phase impulse (p < 0.001). Post hoc comparisons indicated that higher jumpers exhibited larger relative magnitude and impulse in the phases contained within the positive area of the F-t curve. Similarly, relative phase magnitude and impulse were the only phase characteristics to be statically different between men and women. Finally, the relative shape of the phase representing the initial rise in force was found to relate to jump height. These results provide some information regarding the diagnostic value of qualitative analysis of the CMJ F-t curve.

Phase Characteristics of the Countermovement Jump Force-Time Curve: A Comparison of Athletes by Jumping Ability

Despite the Systeme International d'Unites (SI) that was published in 1960, there continues to be widespread misuse of the terms and nomenclature of mechanics in descriptions of exercise performance. Misuse applies principally to failure to distinguish between mass and weight, velocity and speed, and especially the terms "work" and "power." These terms are incorrectly applied across the spectrum from high-intensity short-duration to long-duration endurance exercise. This review identifies these misapplications and proposes solutions. Solutions include adoption of the term "intensity" in descriptions and categorizations of challenge imposed on an individual as they perform exercise, followed by correct use of SI terms and units appropriate to the specific kind of exercise performed. Such adoption must occur by authors and reviewers of sport and exercise research reports to satisfy the principles and practices of science and for the field to advance.

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F.B. Carl Brookes

Papers

Misuse of "Power" and Other Mechanical Terms in Sport and Exercise Science Research