/pdf/feeling-and-thinking-preferences-need-no-inferences-q4mw2hj8rx.pdf

Feeling and thinking : Preferences need no inferences

This paper presents a theoretical model of situation awareness based on its role in dynamic human decision making in a variety of domains. Situation awareness is presented as a predominant concern in system operation, based on a descriptive view of decision making. The relationship between situation awareness and numerous individual and environmental factors is explored. Among these factors, attention and working memory are presented as critical factors limiting operators from acquiring and interpreting information from the environment to form situation awareness, and mental models and goal-directed behavior are hypothesized as important mechanisms for overcoming these limits. The impact of design features, workload, stress, system complexity, and automation on operator situation awareness is addressed, and a taxonomy of errors in situation awareness is introduced, based on the model presented. The model is used to generate design implications for enhancing operator situation awareness and future directio...

Toward a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems

1. Introduction 2. The emergence of learning activity as a historical form of human learning 3. The zone of proximal development as the basic category of expansive research 4. The instruments of expansion 5. Toward an expansive methodology 6. Epilogue.

Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research

The perceptual recognition of objects is conceptualized to be a process in which the image of the input is segmented at regions of deep concavity into an arrangement of simple geometric components, such as blocks, cylinders, wedges, and cones. The fundamental assumption of the proposed theory, recognition-by-components (RBC), is that a modest set of generalized-cone components, called geons (N £ 36), can be derived from contrasts of five readily detectable properties of edges in a two-dimensiona l image: curvature, collinearity, symmetry, parallelism, and cotermination. The detection of these properties is generally invariant over viewing position an$ image quality and consequently allows robust object perception when the image is projected from a novel viewpoint or is degraded. RBC thus provides a principled account of the heretofore undecided relation between the classic principles of perceptual organization and pattern recognition: The constraints toward regularization (Pragnanz) characterize not the complete object but the object's components. Representational power derives from an allowance of free combinations of the geons. A Principle of Componential Recovery can account for the major phenomena of object recognition: If an arrangement of two or three geons can be recovered from the input, objects can be quickly recognized even when they are occluded, novel, rotated in depth, or extensively degraded. The results from experiments on the perception of briefly presented pictures by human observers provide empirical support for the theory. Any single object can project an infinity of image configurations to the retina. The orientation of the object to the viewer can vary continuously, each giving rise to a different two-dimensional projection. The object can be occluded by other objects or texture fields, as when viewed behind foliage. The object need not be presented as a full-colored textured image but instead can be a simplified line drawing. Moreover, the object can even be missing some of its parts or be a novel exemplar of its particular category. But it is only with rare exceptions that an image fails to be rapidly and readily classified, either as an instance of a familiar object category or as an instance that cannot be so classified (itself a form of classification).

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Recognition-by-Components: A Theory of Human Image Understanding.

First published in 1958, this book has become recognized as a classic in its field. It marked a transition between behaviourist learning theory and the modern 'information processing' or 'cognitive' approach to perception and communication skills. It continues to provide a principal starting point for theoretical and experimental work on selective attention. As Professor Posner writes in his Foreword to the reissue: 'it remains of great interest to view the work in its original form and to ponder those creative moments when the mind first grasps a new insight and then struggles to work out its consequences.

Perception and communication

/pdf/remembering-a-study-in-experimental-and-social-psychology-2u4ugeahj8.pdf

Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology

Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology

IF the character and causation of fatigue following highly skilled work are to be understood, the first need is for the discovery of more relevant and experimentally controlled facts. Unfortunately, almost all? the investigators who have attempted to study fatigue of this type have adopted methods taken over with very slight change from those which have proved valuable in the study of simple muscular fatigue. They have chosen elementary operations usually considered to require some ‘mental’ effort-such as easy calculations, word, or colour recognition and naming and the like-have repeated these operations over and over again for long periods, and have tried to express the resulting fatigue in terms of the diminution in quantity or quality of the work done.

Fatigue following Highly Skilled Work.

Psychology and primitive culture

If the character and causation of fatigue following highly skilled work are to be understood, the first need is for the discovery of more relevant and experimentally controlled facts. Un­fortunately, almost all the investigators who have attempted to study fatigue of this type have adopted methods taken over with very slight change from those which have proved valuable in the study of simple muscular fatigue. They have chosen elementary operations usually considered to require some 9mental’ effort—such as easy calculations, word or colour recognition and naming and the like—have repeated these operations over and over again for long periods, and have tried to express the resulting fatigue in terms of the diminution in quantity or quality of the work done. The skill fatigue of daily life is not set up under such conditions. Routine repetition of simple actions is not a characteristic of any highly skilled work, and least of all of work having a strong ‘mental’ component. The operations involved here are marked by complex, co-ordinated and accurately timed activities. The stimuli in response to which these activities are set up are neither simple nor do they usually fall into an order of fixed succession. They have the character of a field, or a pattern, which has become very highly organized, and may retain its identity in spite of a great diversity of internal arrangement. It is possible to develop fully controlled experimental situations in which these realistic considerations have full play. When this is done the picture of fatigue following highly skilled work which emerges has certain strongly marked characters. In such fatigue the ‘standards’ accepted and followed by the central nervous system unwittingly deteriorate. The operator tends to think that he is doing better work, because errors treated as significant all the time get wider and wider limits. Until a stage of great fatigue is reached, it is far more likely that the right actions will be performed at the wrong times than that the wrong actions will be performed. If accurate timing is insisted upon, gross mistakes of action may appear. The stimulus fields splits up. Its pattern character alters. It becomes a collection of unconnected signals for action, with some of these predominant over all the others. Particularly, stimuli which are in the margin of the pattern, not closely organized with the central field, are ignored, ‘forgotten’, and serious lapses of specific reactions occur. There is a marked change in the effect of certain ‘distracting’, or additional stimuli. Sensations of bodily origin, in particular, become more pressing and insistent and affect the performance in ways peculiar to the tired operator. Side by side with all these changes go constant subjective symptoms. Verbal reports about any circumstances connected with known failure of performance become increasingly inaccurate, and errors are regularly projected upon objective conditions, or attributed to the interference of other people. There is a tremendous growth of irritability. An attempt is made to discuss the light thrown by this picture upon the relation of high-level central nervous functions to simpler neuro-muscular mechanisms.

F. C. Bartlett

Papers

Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology

Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology

Fatigue following Highly Skilled Work.

Psychology and primitive culture

Ferrier Lecture - Fatigue following highly skilled work