Trichloroisocyanuric Acid: A Safe and Efficient Oxidant

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the aqueous, high-temperature transformation of carbohydrates. Over the past two decades, considerable interest has been directed toward the conversion of cellulosic biomass (materials such as wood wastes, bagasse, and straw) into useful products, notably fuels. Several procedures, including fermentation, gasification, liquefaction, and pyrolysis, have been commercially applied to carbohydrates with various degrees of success. To use the polysaccharides present in lignocellulosic materials as a substrate in fermentation processes, pretreatments are necessary, such as with steam (under slightly acid conditions) or alkali, followed by acid or enzymic hydrolysis. It is difficult to avoid some unwanted carbohydrate transformations in these pretreatments. Gasification is a rather direct and specific process. Liquefaction (hydrothermolysis) and pyrolysis are not so specific, as the mixtures obtained by these processes indicate that a complex series of mechanisms is involved. This chapter focuses on the transformation of monomeric saccharides the transformation of polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose. It also elaborates the concepts related to carbohydrate transformation in the presence of amino compounds.

Aqueous, High-Temperature Transformation of Carbohydrates Relative to Utilization of Biomass

Levulinic acid production based on extrusion and pressurized batch reaction

The primary objective of this thesis is to define optimum catalysts, reaction conditions and reactor configurations for the conversion of water hyacinth plant to LA. The conversion of the C6-sugars present in the water hyacinth plant to LA involves several reactions that together form a complex reaction network. A number of side reactions giving rise to by-products formation (e.g., insoluble humin compounds) significantly complicate the catalyst selection and the development of kinetic models. Therfore, a stepwise approach was applied by investigating the individual reactions in the overall reaction scheme separately.

Levulinic acid from lignocellulosic biomass

The article contains sections titled:



1.	Introduction	
2.	Pyridine and Alkylpyridines	
2.1.	Properties	
2.2.	Production	
2.2.1.	Separation from Tar	
2.2.2.	Synthesis from Aldehydes or Ketones with Ammonia	
2.2.3.	Synthesis from Acrylonitrile and Ketones	
2.2.4.	Synthesis from Dinitriles	
2.2.5.	Dealkylation of Alkylpyridines	
2.2.6.	Synthesis of 5-Ethyl-2-Methylpyridine from Paraldehyde and Ammonia	
2.2.7.	Synthesis from Nitriles and Acetylene	
2.2.8.	Other Synthetic Methods	
2.3.	Quality Specifications, Storage, and Transportation	
2.4.	Uses	
2.5.	Economic Aspects	
3.	Pyridine Derivatives	
3.1.	Vinylpyridines	
3.2.	Bipyridines	
3.3.	Quaternary Pyridinium Salts	
3.4.	Pyridine N-Oxides	
3.5.	Piperidines	
3.6.	Halopyridines	
3.7.	Pyridinecarbonitriles, Carboxylic Acids, and Carboxamides	
3.8.	Aminopyridines	
3.8.1.	2-Aminopyridine	
3.8.2.	Other Aminopyridines	
3.9.	Pyridinols	
3.10.	Pyridyl Alcohols	
3.11.	Pyridinecarbaldehydes	
3.12.	Pharmaceuticals and Agrochemicals	
4.	Toxicology	
4.1.	Acute Toxicity	
4.2.	Subacute and Chronic Toxicity	
4.3.	Mutagenicity and Ecotoxicity

Pyridine and Pyridine Derivatives

A semi-technical method of preparing crystalline levulinic acid by a process commencing with the hydrolysis of starch in 100 lb. batches is described. Details are also given of large all glass apparatus for evaporating solutions of crude levulinic acid without appreciable carbonization.

The preparation of levulinic acid on a semi-technical scale

A pilot plant process suitable for producing 70 lb. per week of trichloriminocyanuric acid by the chlorination of cyanuric acid in caustic soda solution is described. The cyanuric acid is obtained by the action of zinc chloride upon urea and the product without purification is chlorinated in a novel continuous chlorinator which involves the exposure of a cooled film of sodium cyanuratc solution to light-activated chlorine gas. An attempt is made to correlate lamp power with quality and yield of product in the photo-chlorination process.

The preparation of cyanuric acid and trichloriminocyanuric acid on a pilot plant scale

Plots of water-rate and packing-shape correction factors for four commonly used sizes of Raschig rings to use with a modified Fanning equation are given. These are for fluid rates commonly associated with distillation, as distinct from absorption.

Experimental evidence is given to show the magnitude of the error involved in applying the results obtained with an air/water system to calculations concerning distillation systems.

Design of packed distillation columns. I. Pressure drop through packed distillation columns

A semi-technical method of preparing a mixture of 2 and 4-benzyl pyridines at the rate of several cwt. per week utilizing the reaction between benzyl chloride and pyridine is described Satisfactory control of the reaction on the 1 cwt. batch size was obtained by the use of circulating hot oil as the reaction vessel heating medium.

The preparation of mixed benzyl pyridine isomers on a pilot plant scale

Data are presented which lead to the conclusion that the liquid-film resistance was the controlling resistance in rectification of a binary system carried out in a particular packed column. This confirms the conclusion reached by other workers on similar packed columns.

F. R. Whitt

Papers

The preparation of levulinic acid on a semi-technical scale

The preparation of cyanuric acid and trichloriminocyanuric acid on a pilot plant scale

Design of packed distillation columns. I. Pressure drop through packed distillation columns

The preparation of mixed benzyl pyridine isomers on a pilot plant scale

Design of packed distillation columns. III. Rectification film resistances in a packed column