A possible source of biological material for the production of biodiesel is represented by microalgae, in particular by their lipid content. The aim of the present work was to study of the effects of temperature and nitrogen concentration on the lipid content of Nannochloropsis oculata and Chlorella vulgaris in view of their possible utilization as novel raw materials for biodiesel production. In addition, various lipid extraction methods were investigated. The extracted lipids were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed by gravimetric and gas chromatographic methods, respectively, in order to check their suitability according to the European standards for biodiesel. The lipid content of microalgae was strongly influenced by the variation of tested parameters; indeed, an increase in temperature from 20 to 25 °C practically doubled the lipid content of N. oculata (from 7.90 to 14.92%), while an increase from 25 to 30 °C brought about a decrease of the lipid content of C. vulgaris from 14.71 to 5.90%. On the other hand, a 75% decrease of the nitrogen concentration in the medium, with respect to the optimal values for growth, increased the lipid fractions of N. oculata from 7.90 to 15.31% and of C. vulgaris from 5.90 to 16.41%, respectively.

Effect of temperature and nitrogen concentration on the growth and lipid content of nannochloropsis oculata and chlorella vulgaris for biodiesel production

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has been the primary focus of cannabis research since 1964, when Raphael Mechoulam isolated and synthesized it. More recently, the synergistic contributions of cannabidiol to cannabis pharmacology and analgesia have been scientifically demonstrated. Other phytocannabinoids, including tetrahydrocannabivarin, cannabigerol and cannabichromene, exert additional effects of therapeutic interest. Innovative conventional plant breeding has yielded cannabis chemotypes expressing high titres of each component for future study. This review will explore another echelon of phytotherapeutic agents, the cannabis terpenoids: limonene, myrcene, α-pinene, linalool, β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, nerolidol and phytol. Terpenoids share a precursor with phytocannabinoids, and are all flavour and fragrance components common to human diets that have been designated Generally Recognized as Safe by the US Food and Drug Administration and other regulatory agencies. Terpenoids are quite potent, and affect animal and even human behaviour when inhaled from ambient air at serum levels in the single digits ng·mL−1. They display unique therapeutic effects that may contribute meaningfully to the entourage effects of cannabis-based medicinal extracts. Particular focus will be placed on phytocannabinoid-terpenoid interactions that could produce synergy with respect to treatment of pain, inflammation, depression, anxiety, addiction, epilepsy, cancer, fungal and bacterial infections (including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). Scientific evidence is presented for non-cannabinoid plant components as putative antidotes to intoxicating effects of THC that could increase its therapeutic index. Methods for investigating entourage effects in future experiments will be proposed. Phytocannabinoid-terpenoid synergy, if proven, increases the likelihood that an extensive pipeline of new therapeutic products is possible from this venerable plant.

LINKED ARTICLES
This article is part of a themed issue on Cannabinoids in Biology and Medicine. To view the other articles in this issue visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2011.163.issue-7

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Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid‐terpenoid entourage effects

Enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning reactions of amino acids and proteins with carbohydrates, oxidized lipids, and oxidized phenols cause deterioration of food during storage and processing. The loss in nutritional quality and potentially in safety is attributed to destruction of essential amino acids, decrease in digestibility, inhibition of proteolytic and glycolytic enzymes, interaction with metal ions, and formation of antinutritional and toxic compounds. Studies in this area include influence of damage to essential amino acids on nutrition and food safety, nutritional damage as a function of processing conditions, and simultaneous formation of deleterious and beneficial compounds. These compounds include kidney-damaging Maillard reaction products, mutagens, carcinogens, antimutagens, antioxidants, antibiotics, and antiallergens. This overview covers the formation, nutrition, and safety of glycated proteins, characterized browning products, and heterocyclic amines. Possible approaches to inhibiting browning reactions and preventing adverse effects of browning during food processing and food consumption, including protection against adverse effects of heterocyclic amines by N-acetylcysteine, caffeine, chlorophyll, conjugated linoleic acid, lignin, and tea extracts, are also described. This research subject covers a complex relationship of the chemistry, biology, and pathology of browning products and the impact on human nutrition and health. Future study should differentiate antinutritional and toxicological relationships, define individual and combined potencies of browning products, and develop means to prevent the formation and to minimize the adverse manifestations of the most antinutritional and toxic compounds. Such studies should lead to better and safer foods and improved human health.

http://nfscfaculty.tamu.edu/talcott/courses/FSTC605/Papers%20Reviewed/Food%20Browning.pdf

Food browning and its prevention: an overview

A review of the analytical methods to determine the geographical and botanical origin of honey.

In the early nineties the presence of flavonoids in Citrus juices began to attract the attention of a number of researchers, as a result of their biological and physiological importance. This short review will explore two different aspects. The first part will focus on analytical techniques for the characterization of juices from different Citrus fruits regarding their flavonoid content (even if present in only trace amounts), concentrating on the most widely used methods (LC-MS and LC-MS-MS). The second part analyzes data reported in the literature regarding the composition of Citrus juices. The main components that have been detected so far are flavanone-O-glycosides and flavone-O- or -C-glycosides. The presence of such derivatives in various hand-squeezed and industrial juices is discussed, with special emphasis on their correlation to different species.

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Flavonoid composition of Citrus juices.

Geographical traceability of West Liguria extravirgin olive oils by the analysis of volatile terpenoid hydrocarbons.

Direct thermal extraction and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of volatile compounds of extra-virgin olive oils.

The development of the Maillard reaction in pasteurized, UHT and in-bottle sterilized dietetic milks was studied. In these products damage caused by heat treatments could increase as a result either of the addition of various ingredients or of manufacturing processes that alter their content of reducing carbohydrates. Protein damage was evaluated by measuring furosine by reversed-phase ion-paired HPLC. The levels of furosine detected made it possible to assess the amounts of biologically unavailable lysine. In all milks analysed blocked lysine values were <340–350 mg/g total lysine, the level at which lysine becomes the limiting amino acid in milk. Pasteurized dietetic milks had levels of blocked lysine similar to that in ordinary pasteurized cows' milk. In some UHT and in-bottle sterilized dietetic milks their different composition resulted in an increase in the blocked lysine content. In some in-bottle sterilized milks, protein damage greatly reduces the beneficial effects of milk as a dietary supplement. Lactose-free milks, which are more susceptible to protein deterioration because of their higher content of reducing carbohydrates, were also analysed after storage at 20°C and at [les ]4°C. At the end of their recommended storage times, they contained limited amounts of blocked lysine only if they had been stored at [les ]4°C.

Deterioration of protein fraction by Maillard reaction in dietetic milks

Two methods for routine analysis of free 7-ketocholesterol (7-k) in foods by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were compared. The analyzed samples were egg noodles, biscuits prepared with eggs, sweet snacks, grated Parmesan cheeses, and some ingredients utilized in the food industry (whole-milk and whole-egg powder). The enrichment of cholesterol oxides was carried out by solid-phase separation of the total lipids with florisil and silica cartridges for methods A and B, respectively. The 7-k analyses were run in normal-phase HPLC for method A, and a reverse-phase process was used in method B. Identification of the 7-k peak was confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis and peak purity checkvia spectral analysis with a diode array detector. The quantitation of 7-k was carried out with an internal standard for method A and with a calibration curve for method B. The limit of quantitation (LQ) was 3 × 10−9 g/injection; the limit of detection was ten times lower than the LQ for both methods. The two methods showed good recovery (99%) and good repeatability (coefficient of variation of 3.9 and 3.7% for methods A and B, respectively). These methods allow a fast, sensitive, and reliable determination of one cholesterol oxidation product, which is present at a high concentration level in the first stages of the oxidation process.

Routine high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of free 7-ketocholesterol in some foods by two different analytical methods

The quantity of blocked lysine in spray-dried infant fistulas in Italy was calculated by the furosine method. This quantity was then correlated with the composition of the carbohydrate fraction. In formulas containing only lactose as carbohydrate its presence in large quantities (6.7-74.5 g/100 mL of formula as fed), with a lysine-rich protein fraction, may lead to amino acid blocking of >20%. In formulas in which lactose was substituted with low-DE maltodextrin a reduction of lysine blocking was possible. Addition of glucose may result in high levels of blocked lysine

Filippo Evangelisti

Papers

Geographical traceability of West Liguria extravirgin olive oils by the analysis of volatile terpenoid hydrocarbons.

Direct thermal extraction and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of volatile compounds of extra-virgin olive oils.

Deterioration of protein fraction by Maillard reaction in dietetic milks

Routine high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of free 7-ketocholesterol in some foods by two different analytical methods

Relationship Between Blocked Lysine and Carbohydrate Composition of Infant Formulas