Fungi are an understudied, biotechnologically valuable group of organisms. Due to 
the immense range of habitats that fungi inhabit, and the consequent need to compete against a diverse array of other fungi, bacteria, and animals, fungi have developed numerous survival mechanisms. The unique attributes of fungi thus herald great promise for their application in biotechnology and industry. Moreover, fungi can be grown with relative ease, making production at scale viable. The search for fungal biodiversity, and the construction of a living fungi collection, both have incredible economic potential in locating organisms with novel industrial uses that will lead to novel products. This manuscript reviews fifty ways in which fungi can potentially be utilized as biotechnology. We provide notes and examples for each potential exploitation and give examples from our own work and the work of other notable researchers. We also provide a flow chart that can be used to convince funding bodies of the importance of fungi for biotechnological research and as potential products. Fungi have provided the world with penicillin, lovastatin, and other globally significant medicines, and they remain an untapped resource with enormous industrial potential.

The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially

The potential disease suppressiveness of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi of various origins on Bipolaris sorokiniana in barley has been investigated. Firstly, a survey considering the occurrence of AM fungi in arable fields in Sweden were conducted with the aim to exploit site specific genetic resources in relation to disease suppressiveness. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were present at all 45 sampling sites surveyed all over Sweden at densities ranging from 3 up to 44 spores per gram air dried soil. The highest spore density was found in a semi-natural grassland and the lowest were found in a cereal monoculture. The AM fungi were then multiplied in trap cultures in the greenhouse with the aim to use these for studying potential disease suppressiveness. Thus, the effects of the AM fungi trap cultures on the transmission of seed-borne B. sorokiniana in barley were investigated, using the trap culture inocula, but also including inocula consisting on spore mixtures. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were able to suppress the transmission of B. sorokiniana in aerial parts of barley plants. The degree of suppression varied with the origin of the AM fungal trap cultures. The trap culture inoculum with the highest suppression of the B. sorokiniana transmission originated from an organically managed barley field with undersown ley. The two spore-inocula with the best suppression of the pathogen originated from fields with winter wheat and spring barley, respectively. Eventually, an in vitro method was developed for studying the effect of AM fungal colonisation of roots on the development of foliar diseases and the reaction of the actual host plant of the disease causing organism. Using the developed method, it was indicated that AM fungal colonisation of barley plant suppressed the development of leaf necroses due to B. sorokiniana. Further in vitro studies on the interaction between B. sorokiniana and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi showed that B. sorokiniana decrease the germination of the AM fungal spores. In conclusion, AM fungi suppress the development of B. sorokiniana in barley. My data suggest that for biocontrol of B. sorokiniana AM fungi should be considered.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Contents Summary 1059 I. Introduction: pathways of influence and pervasiveness of effects 1060 II. AM fungal richness effects on ecosystem functions 1062 III. Other dimensions of biodiversity 1062 IV. Back to basics - primary axes of niche differentiation by AM fungi 1066 V. Functional diversity of AM fungi - a role for biological stoichiometry? 1067 VI. Past, novel and future ecosystems 1068 VII. Opportunities and the way forward 1071 Acknowledgements 1072 References 1072 SUMMARY: Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi play important functional roles in ecosystems, including the uptake and transfer of nutrients, modification of the physical soil environment and alteration of plant interactions with other biota. Several studies have demonstrated the potential for variation in AM fungal diversity to also affect ecosystem functioning, mainly via effects on primary productivity. Diversity in these studies is usually characterized in terms of the number of species, unique evolutionary lineages or complementary mycorrhizal traits, as well as the ability of plants to discriminate among AM fungi in space and time. However, the emergent outcomes of these relationships are usually indirect, and thus context dependent, and difficult to predict with certainty. Here, we advocate a fungal-centric view of AM fungal biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships that focuses on the direct and specific links between AM fungal fitness and consequences for their roles in ecosystems, especially highlighting functional diversity in hyphal resource economics. We conclude by arguing that an understanding of AM fungal functional diversity is fundamental to determine whether AM fungi have a role in the exploitation of marginal/novel environments (whether past, present or future) and highlight avenues for future research.

https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/nph.15119

Biodiversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and ecosystem function

Urgent solutions to global climate change are needed. Ambitious tree-planting initiatives, many already underway, aim to sequester enormous quantities of carbon to partly compensate for anthropogenic CO2 emissions, which are a major cause of rising global temperatures. However, tree planting that is poorly planned and executed could actually increase CO2 emissions and have long-term, deleterious impacts on biodiversity, landscapes and livelihoods. Here, we highlight the main environmental risks of large-scale tree planting and propose 10 golden rules, based on some of the most recent ecological research, to implement forest ecosystem restoration that maximizes rates of both carbon sequestration and biodiversity recovery while improving livelihoods. These are as follows: (1) Protect existing forest first; (2) Work together (involving all stakeholders); (3) Aim to maximize biodiversity recovery to meet multiple goals; (4) Select appropriate areas for restoration; (5) Use natural regeneration wherever possible; (6) Select species to maximize biodiversity; (7) Use resilient plant material (with appropriate genetic variability and provenance); (8) Plan ahead for infrastructure, capacity and seed supply; (9) Learn by doing (using an adaptive management approach); and (10) Make it pay (ensuring the economic sustainability of the project). We focus on the design of long-term strategies to tackle the climate and biodiversity crises and support livelihood needs. We emphasize the role of local communities as sources of indigenous knowledge, and the benefits they could derive from successful reforestation that restores ecosystem functioning and delivers a diverse range of forest products and services. While there is no simple and universal recipe for forest restoration, it is crucial to build upon the currently growing public and private interest in this topic, to ensure interventions provide effective, long-term carbon sinks and maximize benefits for biodiversity and people.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/gcb.15498

Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits

https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202009.0130/v1/download

Ten Golden Rules for Reforestation to Optimise Carbon Sequestration, Biodiversity Recovery and Livelihood Benefits

Experiences worldwide reveal that degraded lands restoration projects achieve little success or fail. Hence, understanding the underlining causes and accordingly, devising appropriate restoration mechanisms is crucial. In doing so, the ever-increasing aspiration and global commitments in degraded lands restoration could be realized. Here we explain that Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) biotechnology is a potential mechanism to significantly improve the restoration success of degraded lands. There are abundant scientific evidences to demonstrate that AMF significantly improve soil attributes, increase above and belowground biodiversity, significantly improve tree/shrub seedlings survival, growth and establishment on moisture and nutrient stressed soils. AMF have also been shown to drive plant succession and may prevent invasion by alien species. The very few conditions where infective AMF are low in abundance and diversity is when the soil erodes, is disturbed and is devoid of vegetation cover. These are all common features of degraded lands. Meanwhile, degraded lands harbor low levels of infective AMF abundance and diversity. Therefore, the successful restoration of infective AMF can potentially improve the restoration success of degraded lands. Better AMF inoculation effects result when inocula are composed of native fungi instead of exotics, early seral instead of late seral fungi, and are consortia instead of few or single species. Future research efforts should focus on AMF effect on plant community primary productivity and plant competition. Further investigation focusing on forest ecosystems and carried out at the field condition is highly recommended. Devising cheap and ethically widely accepted inocula production methods and better ways of AMF in-situ management for effective restoration of degraded lands will also remain to be important research areas. Keywords: AMF, ecological restoration, facilitation, inoculation, land degradation, mycorrhiza, monoxenic culture, succession

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The Potential Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Restoration of Degraded Lands

Tree species selection and seedlings lack of infective arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) could potentially contribute to low forest restoration success in Ethiopia. Hence, we evaluated the comparative field performance of Cordia Africana (C. africana), Juniperus procera (J. procera), and Podocarpus falcatus (P. falcatus) seedlings and the effect of whole soil AMF inoculation. Seedlings prepared using the existing practice were planted on a field at Chancho, Central Ethiopia. Seedlings were inoculated with six types of whole soil AMF inoculums, no inoculation being the control. Seedlings survival was determined at the end of the 11th month; relative growth rate in collar diameter (RGR-CD) and height (RGR-H) was determined at the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 8th, and 11th months. We found out that the plantation site was very fertile with available phosphorus (Av P) =103.16 mg/Kg; total nitrogen (TN) = 0.376%; organic carbon (OC) = 3.12%; AMF spore abundance = 6.91±2.00 g-1. None of the P. falcatus and C. africana seedlings survived while 25% of J. procera seedlings survived. AMF inoculation did not have statistically significant effect on RGR-CD and RGR-H but conspecific inoculum resulted in significantly lower RGR-H of C. africana at the 2nd month, indicating the probability of species specific effect of AMF inoculation.

	Key words: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), Chancho, forest restoration, relative growth rate (RGR), seedlings survival.

/pdf/comparative-field-survival-and-growth-of-selected-ethiopian-mkpohsrpf4.pdf

Comparative field survival and growth of selected Ethiopian native tree species and the effect of whole soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation

Soil physicochemical property and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi resilience to degradation and deforestation of a dry evergreen Afromontane forest in central Ethiopia

We investigated the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) status of ten nurseries suitable for restoration of dry evergreen Afromontane forests in Ethiopia We quantified AMF root colonization (RC) and spore abundance (SA) in seedlings of nine native tree species namely Acacia abyssinica Hochst ex Benth, Cordia africana Lam, Dovyalis abyssinica (A Rich) Warb, Hagenia abyssinica JF Gmel, Juniperus procera Hochst ex Endl, Millettia ferruginea (Hochst) Baker, Olea europaea L subsp cuspidata (Wall ex G Don) Cif, Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb) R Br ex Mirb and Prunus africana (Hook f) Kalkman We used the ink and vinegar method to stain AMF in roots RC levels ranged from 800 to  9967% and were generally higher than the RC levels reported from other similar nurseries in Ethiopia SA levels ranged from 1 to  25 spores g−1 and were comparable with some reports from the field in Ethiopia but they were lower than levels reported by another similar study RC was more affected by host species than nursery location, while the reverse was true for SA The results also showed that nursery management could improve AMF status among seedlings When all nursery tree species were considered, RC and SA levels were unrelated No strong correlation existed between the nursery management variables considered and RC or SA However, considering C africana, J procera and P falcatus separately, RC-age (rs = 0829, P = 0042) correlation for O europaea and RC-pot diameter (rs = 0820, P = 0046), RC-pot volume (rs = 0928, P = 0008) and SA-age (rs = 0943, P = 0005) correlations for C africana, were significant, strong and positive Generally, most of the tree species and particularly, early-mid successional tree species had sufficient AMF inoculum Hence, only the mid-late successional tree species; J procera, P falcatus, and P africana may require AMF inoculation, preferably, during filed planting Based on our results, age and pot volume were identified to be important variables potentially affecting RC and SA To better understand the effects of these and other nursery management variables, additional study is required We demonstrated for the first time that black Hero ink is suitable for staining root AMF and can be used in future AMF research

The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi status of selected tree nurseries in the Ethiopian highlands

. Asmelash F, Bekele T, Belay Z, Kebede F. 2021. Cordia africana but not Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus respond positively to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi at the early stages of seedling development. Biodiversitas 22: 2971-2980. AMF (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) inoculation could be an important technology to improve the growth and field survival of trees. Hence, we evaluated the mycorrhizal responsiveness of Cordia africana Lam., Juniperus procera (Hoechst. ex Endl.), and Podocarpus falcatus (Thumb.) Mirb. seedlings. Seedlings germinated on sterile sand were transplanted to 1-liter plastic pots filled with sterile and non-sterile degraded bulk soil. Rhizospheric soil from adult C. africana and J. procera were used as whole-soil AMF inocula. Cordia africana and J. procera received conspecific whole-soil AMF inocula while P. falcatus received J. procera inoculum. Hence, in the two-by-two factorial experiment, we also evaluated the growth effects of AMF inoculation, soil type, and their interaction. On the sterile potting soil, MRi (mycorrhizal responsiveness due to AMF inoculation) of C. africana was positive and significantly (p<0.05) greater than the MRi of J. procera and P. falcatus. However, on the non-sterile potting soil, it was significantly greater than the MRi of P. falcatus only. MRs (MR due to the existing potting soil inocula) and considering all growth variables were mostly positive for C. africana but negative for J. procera and P. falcatus. AMF inoculation significantly increased most growth variables of C. africana seedlings and no significant “inoculation” x “soil type” interaction effects were detected. Hence, AMF inoculation of C. africana seedlings could be merited and under wide range of field conditions. In the case of J. procera and P. falcatus, after-planting care could be more appropriate

Cordia africana but not Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus respond positively to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi at the early stages of seedling development

Fisseha Asmelash

Papers

The Potential Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Restoration of Degraded Lands

Comparative field survival and growth of selected Ethiopian native tree species and the effect of whole soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation

Soil physicochemical property and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi resilience to degradation and deforestation of a dry evergreen Afromontane forest in central Ethiopia

The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi status of selected tree nurseries in the Ethiopian highlands

Cordia africana but not Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus respond positively to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi at the early stages of seedling development