Raman spectroscopy of graphene and graphite: Disorder, electron phonon coupling, doping and nonadiabatic effects

Raman spectroscopy is an integral part of graphene research. It is used to determine the number and orientation of layers, the quality and types of edge, and the effects of perturbations, such as electric and magnetic fields, strain, doping, disorder and functional groups. This, in turn, provides insight into all sp(2)-bonded carbon allotropes, because graphene is their fundamental building block. Here we review the state of the art, future directions and open questions in Raman spectroscopy of graphene. We describe essential physical processes whose importance has only recently been recognized, such as the various types of resonance at play, and the role of quantum interference. We update all basic concepts and notations, and propose a terminology that is able to describe any result in literature. We finally highlight the potential of Raman spectroscopy for layered materials other than graphene.

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Raman spectroscopy as a versatile tool for studying the properties of graphene

Raman spectroscopy in graphene

Raman spectroscopy has historically played an important role in the structural characterization of graphitic materials, in particular providing valuable information about defects, stacking of the graphene layers and the finite sizes of the crystallites parallel and perpendicular to the hexagonal axis Here we review the defect-induced Raman spectra of graphitic materials from both experimental and theoretical standpoints and we present recent Raman results on nanographites and graphenes The disorder-induced D and D′ Raman features, as well as the G′-band (the overtone of the D-band which is always observed in defect-free samples), are discussed in terms of the double-resonance (DR) Raman process, involving phonons within the interior of the 1st Brillouin zone of graphite and defects In this review, experimental results for the D, D′ and G′ bands obtained with different laser lines, and in samples with different crystallite sizes and different types of defects are presented and discussed We also present recent advances that made possible the development of Raman scattering as a tool for very accurate structural analysis of nano-graphite, with the establishment of an empirical formula for the in- and out-of-plane crystalline size and even fancier Raman-based information, such as for the atomic structure at graphite edges, and the identification of single versus multi-graphene layers Once established, this knowledge provides a powerful machinery to understand newer forms of sp2 carbon materials, such as the recently developed pitch-based graphitic foams Results for the calculated Raman intensity of the disorder-induced D-band in graphitic materials as a function of both the excitation laser energy (Elaser) and the in-plane size (La) of nano-graphites are presented and compared with experimental results The status of this research area is assessed, and opportunities for future work are identified

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Studying Disorder in Graphite-Based Systems by Raman Spectroscopy

Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: Spectral analysis and structural information

Caracterisation de materiaux carbones par microspectrometrie Raman

Characterization of the coke formed on reforming catalysts by laser raman spectroscopy

Synthese et conductivite des verres du systeme B2O3Na2ONa2SO4

Spectre Raman de résonance et fonction de l'énergie potentielle du bromure d'iode en solution

L’analyse conformationnelle de certaines substances anti- malariales dans la serie des chloroquinolines a ete faite par spectroscopie infrarouge a l’etat solide et a l’etat dissous en comparaison avec des resultats obtenus par diffraction des rayons X. Des changements de conformation ont ete observes lors du passage de l’etat cristallin a l’etat dissous, soit par la rotation d’un groupement actif (OH dans l’iodochloroquine), soit par le repliement de la chaine laterale, comme dans la chloroquine.

Francis Cruege

Papers

Caracterisation de materiaux carbones par microspectrometrie Raman

Characterization of the coke formed on reforming catalysts by laser raman spectroscopy

Synthese et conductivite des verres du systeme B2O3Na2ONa2SO4

Spectre Raman de résonance et fonction de l'énergie potentielle du bromure d'iode en solution

Conformations des chloroquinolines