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Feeling and thinking : Preferences need no inferences

As one of the most successful applications of image analysis and understanding, face recognition has recently received significant attention, especially during the past several years. At least two reasons account for this trend: the first is the wide range of commercial and law enforcement applications, and the second is the availability of feasible technologies after 30 years of research. Even though current machine recognition systems have reached a certain level of maturity, their success is limited by the conditions imposed by many real applications. For example, recognition of face images acquired in an outdoor environment with changes in illumination and/or pose remains a largely unsolved problem. In other words, current systems are still far away from the capability of the human perception system.This paper provides an up-to-date critical survey of still- and video-based face recognition research. There are two underlying motivations for us to write this survey paper: the first is to provide an up-to-date review of the existing literature, and the second is to offer some insights into the studies of machine recognition of faces. To provide a comprehensive survey, we not only categorize existing recognition techniques but also present detailed descriptions of representative methods within each category. In addition, relevant topics such as psychophysical studies, system evaluation, and issues of illumination and pose variation are covered.

Face recognition: A literature survey

Separate visual pathways for perception and action.

An approach to the detection and identification of human faces is presented, and a working, near-real-time face recognition system which tracks a subject's head and then recognizes the person by comparing characteristics of the face to those of known individuals is described. This approach treats face recognition as a two-dimensional recognition problem, taking advantage of the fact that faces are normally upright and thus may be described by a small set of 2-D characteristic views. Face images are projected onto a feature space ('face space') that best encodes the variation among known face images. The face space is defined by the 'eigenfaces', which are the eigenvectors of the set of faces; they do not necessarily correspond to isolated features such as eyes, ears, and noses. The framework provides the ability to learn to recognize new faces in an unsupervised manner. >

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Face recognition using eigenfaces

A parallel distributed processing model of visual word recognition and pronunciation is described. The model consists of sets of orthographic and phonological units and an interlevel of hidden units. Weights on connections between units were modified during a training phase using the back-propagation learning algorithm. The model simulates many aspects of human performance, including (a) differences between words in terms of processing difficulty, (b) pronunciation of novel items, (c) differences between readers in terms of word recognition skill, (d) transitions from beginning to skilled reading, and (e) differences in performance on lexical decision and naming tasks. The model's behavior early in the learning phase corresponds to that of children acquiring word recognition skills. Training with a smaller number of hidden units produces output characteristic of many dyslexic readers. Naming is simulated without pronunciation rules, and lexical decisions are simulated without accessing word-level representations. The performance of the model is largely determined by three factors: the nature of the input, a significant fragment of written English; the learning rule, which encodes the implicit structure of the orthography in the weights on connections; and the architecture of the system, which influences the scope of what can be learned.

A Distributed, Developmental Model of Word Recognition and Naming.

A sample of the literature on acquired dyslexia is reviewed with special reference to the nature of paralexic errors. Linguistic studies of six cases of dyslexia are presented, with appropriate neurological and psychological details; there are two cases of each of three hypothesized types of impairment, visual dyslyxia, “surface” (grapheme-phoneme) dyslexia, and “deep” (syntactico-semantic) dyslexia. Finally, a scheme for acquired dyslexia is proposed and related to the error patterns observed in “normal” adult readers and in children learning to read; our approach to lexical look-up is one that the diagram makers may have found sympathique.

Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach

1. Introduction.- to aspects of face processing: Ten questions in need of answers.- 2. Perceptual Processes.- Microgenesis of face perception..- Recognition memory transfer between spatial- frequency analyzed faces..- Reaction time measures of feature saliency in a perceptual integration task..- Perception of upside-down faces: An analysis from the viewpoint of cue-saliency..- 3. Memory Processes.- On the memorability of the human face..- Face recognition is not unique. Evidence from individual differences..- Lateral reversal and facial recognition memory: Are right-lookers special?.- Context effects in recognition memory of faces: Some theoretical problems..- 4. Cognitive Processes.- Recognising familiar faces..- Face recognition: More than a feeling of familiarity?.- Getting semantic information from familiar faces..- What happens when a face rings a bell?: The automatic processing of famous faces..- 5. Socio-Cognitive Factors.- Levels of representation and memory for faces..- Formation of facial prototypes..- Stereotyping and face memory..- The influence of race on face recognition..- Faces, prototypes, and additive tree representations..- 6. Cortical Specialisation.- Functional organization of visual neurones processing face identity..- Hemispheric asymmetry in face processing in infancy..- Models of laterality effects in face perception..- Hemispheric asymmetries in face recognition and naming: effects of prior stimulus exposure..- Patterns of cerebral dominance in wholistic and featural stages of facial processing..- Hemispheric differences in the evoked potential to face stimuli..- Cerebral and behavioural asymmetries in the processing of "unusual" faces: A review..- 7. Prosopagnosias.- Current issues on prosopagnosia..- The cognitive psychophysiology of prosopagnosia..- Prosopagnosia: Anatomic and physiologic aspects..- Faces and non-faces in prosopagnosic patients..- Observations on a case of prosopagnosia..- 8. Brain Pathology.- Facial processing in the dementias..- The matching of famous and unknown faces, given either the internal or the external features: A study on patients with unilateral brain lesions..- Face recognition dysfunction and delusional mis identification syndromes (D.M.S.)..- 9. Facial Expressions.- Facial expression processing..- The perception of action versus feeling in facial expression..- Towards the quantification of facial expressions with the use of a mathematic model of the face..- Is the faster processing of expressions of happiness modality-specific?.- Primary stages in single-glance face recognition: Expression and identity..- Affective and cognitive decisions on faces in normals..- 10. Applications and Computer Technology.- Dynamics of facial recall..- The recall and reconstruction of faces: Implications for theory and practice..- An interactive computer system for retrieving faces..- Investigating face recognition with an image processing computer..- Practical face recognition and verification with WISARD..- 11. An Overview.- Plenary session. An overview. Complementary approaches to common problems in face recognition..- 12. References.- Addresses of Principal Authors.

Aspects of face processing

Syntactic and semantic errors in paralexia

SUMMARY

Current theoretical models of face perception postulate separate routes for processing information needed in the recognition of a familiar face, for matching photographs of unfamiliar faces and for the analysis of facial expressions. The present study investigated this claim in a group of ex-servicemen who had sustained unilateral brain injuries affecting posterior areas of the left or right cerebral hemisphere. Care was taken to confirm the nature of impairment by using two different tasks to assess each of the three theoretically defined abilities (leading to a total of six tasks). We adopted a stringent application of the double dissociation methodology to investigate the pattern of performance across tasks of individual ex-servicemen. A selective impairment was defined as a significantly impoverished performance on both tests of a specific ability, while all other tasks were performed within normal limits. In addition, we used both accuracy and response latency measures to substantiate evidence for spared or defective abilities. The results showed selective impairments of all three abilities on accuracy scores. Response latency data confirmed the finding of a selective deficit in the processing of facial expressions, but produced evidence suggesting that impairments affecting familiar face recognition and unfamiliar face matching were not completely independent from each other in this group of ex-servicemen.

Face perception after brain injury: selective impairments affecting identity and expression.

PH has been completely unable to recognise faces since sustaining a closed head injury some four years ago, but can recognise familiar people from their names. His performance on face processing tasks is, however, comparable to that of normal subjects if explicit recognition is not required. Thus he can make same/different identity judgements more quickly for familiar than unfamiliar face photographs, and faster matching of familiar faces is only found for identity matches involving the face's internal features. When making semantic categorisation decisions to printed names he shows interference from distractor faces belonging to an incorrect category, even when the faces in each category are matched on physical appearance. When learning to associate the occupation or the name with photographs of faces, his performance is better with true (face and person's actual name or occupation) than untrue (face and another person's name or occupation) pairings. Covert recognition can also be demonstrated f...

Freda Newcombe

Papers

Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach

Aspects of face processing

Syntactic and semantic errors in paralexia

Face perception after brain injury: selective impairments affecting identity and expression.

Face recognition without awareness