N the inorphologic identification of chromosomes, the location of the I centromere is the most useful landmark, and one which is characterized by great constancy. It would seem that not much could be added to the definitions by E. B. WILSON (1928) of the locations on the chromosome of the centrornere or, in the terminology of that time, the spindle attachment: “Attachment of the chromosome to the spindle is commonly limited to a small area, and is of two general types, namely: (1) terminnl or telomitic and (2) non-ferminal or atelomitic, being in the former case at one end, and in the latter at some other point or points. Non-terminal attachment may be at the middle point (median) or at an intermediate point (submedian, sub-terminal). All gradations exist between these various cases;” (I.c., p. 130-131). In the acconipanying picture (l.c., Fig. 56, p. 132), here reprinted as Fig. l., the four locations of median, submedian, subterminal and terminal are represented, and, in addition, “lateral”, which corresponds to the modern term “diffuse centromere”. Nevertheless, at the present time, with the immense increase in research activity in mammalian cytology, the terminology of the centromeric position has become burdened by much obscurity and confusion. One cause of confusion is that different authors, and even the same author on different occasions, have used the terms median, submedian etc. with great amplitude, and it is often difficult to know in a specific case what each term signifies. Another cause of confusion is that a set of terms for chromosomes with specific centromeric positions, such as metacentric, acrocentric, telocentric, have come into wide usage without being clearly defined in relation to the positional terms median, submedian, subterminal and terminal. During the spring of 1963 the present writers exchanged epistolary

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1601-5223.1964.tb01953.x

Nomenclature for centromeric position on chromosomes

SUMMARY
1According to ‘Gause's hypothesis’ a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities.
2Most plant communities are longer-lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all-important to the argument presented.
3Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species-richness:


(a). differences in life-form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence-relationships,
(b) differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression,
(c) fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species,
(d) the ability of certain species-pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition,
(e) the production of substances more toxic to the producer-species than to the other species,
(f) differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore-sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and
(g) differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven-age structure of many populations.


4The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species-rich communities known.
5In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance.
6The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2.
7The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components:


(a) the habitat niche,
(b) the life-form niche,
(c) the phenological niche, and
(d) the regeneration niche.


8A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche.
9All stages in the regeneration-cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages:


(a) Production of viable seed (including the sub-stages of flowering, pollination and seed-set),
(b) dispersal, in space and time,
(c) germination,
(d) establishment, and
(e) further development of the immature plant.


10In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes:


(a) the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species-richness in plant communities,
(b) the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread,
(c) the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation,
(d) the co-incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and
(e) the importance of regeneration-studies for conservation.

The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche

1Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602; 2NMFS/ CZES, Genetics, 2725 Montlake Boulevard East, Seattle, Washington 98112; 3Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801; ~Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024; -SSchool f Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24046

/pdf/intraspecific-phylogeography-the-mitochondrial-dna-bridge-5e2au5n1qt.pdf

Intraspecific Phylogeography: The Mitochondrial DNA Bridge Between Population Genetics and Systematics

The harmful effects of close inbreeding have been noticed for many centuries (34, 35, 165). With the rise of Mendelian genetics, it was realized that the main genetic consequence of inbreeding is homozygosis (165, Ch. 2). Two main theories were early proposed to account for inbreeding depression and its converse, heterosis (the increase in vigor observed in an F1 between two inbred lines). These are the overdominance and partial dominance hypotheses, discussed in more detail below. Research into this question has continued up to the present, and this is one of the topics that we discuss. Darwin (35, 36) was the first to point out that the evident adaptations of many plants for ensuring outcrossing could be understood in terms of the selective advantage of avoiding inbreeding depression. We review the evidence that the evolution of breeding systems of animals and plants has been significantly influenced by the occurrence of inbreeding depression. In order to do this, we consider the contemporary genetic theory of inbreeding depression and heterosis, and the experimental data concerning the strength of inbreeding depression. We emphasize data and theory relevant to natural, rather than domesticated, populations as we are chiefly concerned to evaluate the evolutionary significance of inbreeding depression. We do not attempt to give a complete bibliography of this very extensive field but try to concentrate on what seem to be the most significant findings in relation to this aim.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2097132.pdf

Inbreeding depression and its evolutionary consequences

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity in plants. The expression of an individual genotype is modified by its environment. The amount by which it can be modified is termed its plasticity. This plasticity can be either morphological or physiological; these are interrelated. The plasticity of a character is related to the general pattern of its development, and apart from this, that plasticity is a general property of the whole genotype. Plasticity of a character appears to be specific for that character, specific in relation to particular environmental influences, specific in direction, under genetic control not necessarily related to heterozygosity, and able to be radically altered by selection. Because plants are static organisms, plasticity is of marked adaptive value in a great number of situations. Examples of all these situations in plant species are discussed. They indicate that adaptation by plasticity is a widespread and important phenomenon in plants and has evolved differently in different species. The mechanisms involved in plasticity are varied. At one extreme, the character shows a continuous range of modification dependent on the intensity of the environmental stimulus. At the other, the character shows only two discrete modifications. The stimulus causing these modifications may be direct or indirect. The mechanisms found can be related to the particular environmental situation involved.

Evolutionary Significance of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants

Summary Data are summarized that support the secondary contact-balanced hybridity of polyploid evolution in plants. This states that polyploids are most likely to arise and achieve initial success in regions where alternate isolation plus differentiation followed by reunion and hybridization, in the broadest sense of the word, are most likely to occur. The initial polyploids vary greatly in their evolutionary success. With the passage of time, a small proportion of the original neopolyploids evolve into mesopolyploids, that are widespread, aggressive colonizers, and become abundant over a broad geographical and ecological range. Even later, some of these become diploidized. The resulting paleopolyploids are more like diploids than their original polyploid ancestors with respect to gene pools, geographical distribution and different ecological situations occupied in any region. These conclusions are well supported by a preliminary analysis of polyploidy in the flora of Alaskan Beringia, but more extensive ...

The origin and success of polyploids in the boreal circumpolar flora: A new analysis

The dominant tomato mutant 'Curl' differs from normal plants in several striking respects including the following: misshapen laminar structures such as leaves, sepals, and petals; stunted petiole and rachis; and persistent growth of blade and stem tissue from the adaxial surface of the rachis. These tissues as well as others which appear morphologically normal show gross histological abnormalities. Also evident in sections of mutant tissue is the appearance of areas containing numerous crystalline inclusions and a lack of bodies showing a stainable starch reaction in palisade and mesophyll of leaves and in endodermis and pith cells of the stem. ONE SUCCESSFUL approach to the study of the functioning of genetic material has involved the use of mutants to investigate the control of the enzymes of lactose utilization by the haploid Escherichia coli cell (Jacob and Monod, 1961). To extend our understanding of the control of genetic information and of the development of form from this information to diploid organisms, single gene mutants which produce marked morphological characteristics may be useful experimental materials. In a study of the expression of a gene producing a distinctive phenotype, at least two sequential components can be theoretically delineated (modified from Ebert and Kaighn, 1966): differentiation and morphogenesis. Differentiation is the appearance of change in the metabolism of cellular molecules such as nucleic acids or proteins as a consequence of the expression of different segments of the cell's one-dimensional DNA sequence. Morphogenesis includes the phenomenon of shaping the three-dimensional structures of cells by folding and aggregation of one-dimensional gene products which leads eventually to externally visible, three-dimensional phenotypes. Recognizing these two aspects of gene expression, a genetic study of the control of the expression of hereditary information manifested morphologically would then involve first, an initial characterization of the morphology and histology of normal and mutant; second, identification of differences at the level of molecules; and third, evidence for the mechanism of the externally visible effect. Higher plants are well-suited for studies of differentiation and morphogenesis, particularly because of their permanently embryonic regions, I Received for publication 19 October 1970. Submitted as part of a doctoral dissertation in the Genetics Department, Univ. of Calif., Davis. Supported in part by NIH Training Grant GM 701. 2 Present address: Biology Department, Occidental College, Los Angeles, Calif. known as meristems (Stebbins, 1965). Obvious mutant morphological features may be first seen as conspicuous differences between mutant and normal tissues in meristem differentiation patterns. For example, Stebbins (1965) and Stebbins and Yagil (1966), in studying the action of the hooded gene in barley, have shown that an increase in the nucleic acid metabolism of cells in a specific region of the mutant meristem is correlated with an increased tempo of mitosis and change in division patterns, resulting in an obvious morphological feature in the mutant. Since a characteristic morphological form may be generated through growth in the absence of cell division (Haber and Foard, 1964), careful observations of patterns of change in cellular constituents (not only nucleic acids) can be important in understanding the action of genes in the development of form. In the investigation described in this paper the dominant tomato leaf mutant 'Curl' was studied morphologically and histologically as the groundwork for further exploration into biochemical determinants in the differentiation and morphogenesis of leaves. 'Curl' is a spontaneous mutant of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. which originated as an abnormal branch on an otherwise normal plant of the 'Stokesdale' variety of tomato. As described by Young (1955) the leaves of this branch were dwarfed, curled, in rosette bunches, and the two fruits borne by this branch produced 80 % mutant and 20 % normal plants. Upon further selfing and in crosses with other tomato stocks it was found that the mutant is inherited as a dominant and Young proposed the symbol Cu. Rick and Harrison (1959) reported the locus of Cu to be on chromosome 2, close to Wo. MATERIALS AND METHODS-Growinq conditions -Seeds of homozygous 'Curl' (Cu/Cu) as well as seeds of the parent variety, 'Stokesdale' (Cu+/ Cu+), were obtained from Dr. Charles M. Rick,

G. Ledyard Stebbins

Papers

The origin and success of polyploids in the boreal circumpolar flora: A new analysis

A morphological and histological study of the tomato mutant ‘curl’

Regularities of transformation in the flower

The north coast biodiversity arena in central california: a new scenario for research and teaching processes of evolution

The evolution of cultivated plants and weeds