CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO KARST. 1.1 Definitions. 1.2 The Relationship Between Karst And General Geomorphology And Hydrogeology. 1.3 The Global Distribution Of Karst. 1.4 The Growth Of Ideas. 1.5 Aims Of The Book. 1.6 Karst Terminology. CHAPTER 2. THE KARST ROCKS. 2.1 Carbonate Rocks And Minerals. 2.2 Limestone Compositions And Depositional Facies. 2.3 Limestone Diagenesis And The Formation Of Dolomite. 2.4 The Evaporite Rocks. 2.5. Quartzites And Siliceous Sandstones. 2.6 Effects Of Lithologic Properties Upon Karst Development. 2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks. 2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults And Fracture Traces. 2.9 Fold Topography. 2.10 Paleokarst Unconformities. CHAPTER 3. DISSOLUTION: CHEMICAL AND KINETIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE KARST ROCKS. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Aqueous Solutions And Chemical Equilibria. 3.3 The Dissolution Of Anhydrite, Gypsum And Salt. 3.4 The Dissolution Of Silica. 3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks In Normal Meteoric Waters. 3.6 The S-O-H System And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks. 3.7 Chemical Complications In Carbonate Dissolution. 3.8 Biokarst Processes. 3.9 Measurements In The Field And Lab Computer Programs. 3.10 Dissolution And Precipitation Kinetics Of Karst Rocks. CHAPTER 4. DISTRIBUTION AND RATE OF KARST DENUDATION. 4.1 Global Variations In The Solutional Denudation Of Carbonate Terrains. 4.2 Measurement And Calculation Of Solutional Denudation Rates. 4.3 Solution Rates In Gypsum, Salt And Other Non-Carbonate Rocks. 4.4 Interpretation Of Measurements. CHAPTER 5. KARST HYDROLOGY. 5.1 Basic Hydrological Concepts, Terms And Definitions. 5.2 Controls On The Development Of Karst Hydrologic Systems. 5.3 Energy Supply And Flow Network Development. 5.4 Development Of The Water Table And Phreatic Zones. 5.5 Development Of The Vadose Zone. 5.6 Classification And Characteristics Of Karst Aquifers. 5.7 Applicability Of Darcy's Law To Karst. 5.8 The Fresh Water/Salt Water Interface. CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF KARST DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. 6.1 The 'Grey Box' Nature Of Karst. 6.2 Surface Exploration And Survey Techniques. 6.3 Investigating Recharge And Percolation In The Vadose Zone. 6.4 Borehole Analysis. 6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis. 6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis. 6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation. 6.8 Storage Volumes And Flow Routing Under Different States Of The Hydrograph. 6.9 Interpreting The Organisation Of A Karst Aquifer. 6.10 Water Tracing Techniques. 6.11 Computer Modelling Of Karst Aquifers. CHAPTER 7. SPELEOGENESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVE SYSTEMS. 7.1 Classifying Cave Systems. 7.2 Building The Plan Patterns Of Unconfined Caves. 7.3 Unconfined Cave Development In Length And Depth. 7.4 System Modifications Occurring Within A Single Phase. 7.5 Multi-Phase Cave Systems. 7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There Is Confined Circulation Or Basal Injection Of Water. 7.7 Hypogene Caves: (A) Hydrothermal Caves Associated Chiefly With Co2. 7.8 Hypogene Caves: (B) Caves Formed By Waters Containing H2s. 7.9 Sea Coast Eogenetic Caves. 7.10 Passage Cross-Sections And Smaller Features Of Erosional Morphology. 7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion, And Weathering In Caves. 7.12 Breakdown In Caves. CHAPTER 8. CAVE INTERIOR DEPOSITS. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Clastic Sediments. 8.3 Calcite, Aragonite And Other Carbonate Precipitates. 8.4 Other Cave Minerals. 8.5 Ice In Caves. 8.6 Dating Of Calcite Speleothems And Other Cave Deposits. 8.7 Paleo-Environmental Analysis Of Calcite Speleothems. 8.8 Mass Flux Through A Cave System: The Example Of Friar's Hole, W.Va. CHAPTER 9. KARST LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT IN HUMID REGIONS. 9.1 Coupled Hydrological And Geochemical Systems. 9.2 Small Scale Solution Sculpture - Microkarren And Karren. 9.3 Dolines - The 'Diagnostic' Karst Landform? 9.4 The Origin And Development Of Solution Dolines. 9.5 The Origin Of Collapse And Subsidence Depressions. 9.6 Polygonal Karst. 9.7 Morphometric Analysis Of Solution Dolines. 9.8 Landforms Associated With Allogenic Inputs. 9.9 Karst Poljes. 9.10 Corrosional Plains And Shifts In Baselevel. 9.11 Residual Hills On Karst Plains. 9.12 Depositional And Constructional Karst Features. 9.13 Special Features Of Evaporite Terrains. 9.14 Karstic Features Of Quartzose And Other Rocks. 9.15 Sequences Of Carbonate Karst Evolution In Humid Terrains. CHAPTER 10.THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT. 10.1 The Precepts Of Climatic Geomorphology. 10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme. 10.3 The Cold Extreme: 1 Karst Development In Glaciated Terrains. 10.4 The Cold Extreme: 2 Karst Development In Permafrozen Terrains. 10.5 Sea Level Changes, Tectonic Movement And Implications For Coastal Karst Development. 10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic And Exhumed Karsts. CHAPTER 11. KARST WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. 11.1 Water Resources And Sustainable Yields. 11.2 Determination Of Available Water Resources. 11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping. 11.4 Human Impacts On Karst Water. 11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection, And Risk Mapping. 11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures And Impacts. CHAPTER 12. HUMAN IMPACTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION. 12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability Of Karst Systems. 12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts And Rocky Desertification. 12.3 Sinkholes Induced By De-Watering, Surcharging, Solution Mining And Other Practices On Karst. 12.4 Problems Of Construction On And In The Karst Rocks - Expect The Unexpected! 12.5 Industrial Exploitation Of Karst Rocks And Minerals. 12.6 Restoration Of Karstlands And Rehabilitation Of Limestone Quarries. 12.7 Sustainable Management Of Karst. 12.8 Scientific, Cultural And Recreational Values Of Karstlands.

Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology

We generated genome-wide data from 69 Europeans who lived between 8,000-3,000 years ago by enriching ancient DNA libraries for a target set of almost 400,000 polymorphisms. Enrichment of these positions decreases the sequencing required for genome-wide ancient DNA analysis by a median of around 250-fold, allowing us to study an order of magnitude more individuals than previous studies and to obtain new insights about the past. We show that the populations of Western and Far Eastern Europe followed opposite trajectories between 8,000-5,000 years ago. At the beginning of the Neolithic period in Europe, ∼8,000-7,000 years ago, closely related groups of early farmers appeared in Germany, Hungary and Spain, different from indigenous hunter-gatherers, whereas Russia was inhabited by a distinctive population of hunter-gatherers with high affinity to a ∼24,000-year-old Siberian. By ∼6,000-5,000 years ago, farmers throughout much of Europe had more hunter-gatherer ancestry than their predecessors, but in Russia, the Yamnaya steppe herders of this time were descended not only from the preceding eastern European hunter-gatherers, but also from a population of Near Eastern ancestry. Western and Eastern Europe came into contact ∼4,500 years ago, as the Late Neolithic Corded Ware people from Germany traced ∼75% of their ancestry to the Yamnaya, documenting a massive migration into the heartland of Europe from its eastern periphery. This steppe ancestry persisted in all sampled central Europeans until at least ∼3,000 years ago, and is ubiquitous in present-day Europeans. These results provide support for a steppe origin of at least some of the Indo-European languages of Europe.

Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe

Ancient DNA makes it possible to observe natural selection directly by analysing samples from populations before, during and after adaptation events. Here we report a genome-wide scan for selection using ancient DNA, capitalizing on the largest ancient DNA data set yet assembled: 230 West Eurasians who lived between 6500 and 300 bc, including 163 with newly reported data. The new samples include, to our knowledge, the first genome-wide ancient DNA from Anatolian Neolithic farmers, whose genetic material we obtained by extracting from petrous bones, and who we show were members of the population that was the source of Europe's first farmers. We also report a transect of the steppe region in Samara between 5600 and 300 bc, which allows us to identify admixture into the steppe from at least two external sources. We detect selection at loci associated with diet, pigmentation and immunity, and two independent episodes of selection on height.

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Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians

Animal Bones in Archaeology Book of Notes and Drawings for Beginners. By Michael L. Ryder. (Mammal Society Handbooks.) Pp. xxiv + 65. (Blackwell (Scientific): Oxford and Edinburgh. Published for the Mammal Society, 1969.) 17s.

Digging up Bones

From around 2750 to 2500 bc, Bell Beaker pottery became widespread across western and central Europe, before it disappeared between 2200 and 1800 bc. The forces that propelled its expansion are a matter of long-standing debate, and there is support for both cultural diffusion and migration having a role in this process. Here we present genome-wide data from 400 Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age Europeans, including 226 individuals associated with Beaker-complex artefacts. We detected limited genetic affinity between Beaker-complex-associated individuals from Iberia and central Europe, and thus exclude migration as an important mechanism of spread between these two regions. However, migration had a key role in the further dissemination of the Beaker complex. We document this phenomenon most clearly in Britain, where the spread of the Beaker complex introduced high levels of steppe-related ancestry and was associated with the replacement of approximately 90% of Britain's gene pool within a few hundred years, continuing the east-to-west expansion that had brought steppe-related ancestry into central and northern Europe over the previous centuries.

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The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe

The Kal Basin, located in the central part of Transdanubia, on the northern, mountainous shore of Lake Balaton (Balaton Highland), is one of the most spectacular landscapes of Hungary, a focal area of geological and geomorphological research for more than a century. Its sandstone was formed from the sand beaches of Lake Pannon during the Pliocene and the blockfields (felsenmeers) of the basin are also intriguing geomorphological sites. In addition to the geomorphic diversity, they are also valuable because they survived earth history almost unmodified. After the regression of the sea, on the surfaces of stone blocks a wealth of pseudokarren features began to emerge, adding further diversity to the landscape. The most common features on the horizontal block surfaces are kamenitzas, rinnen, grikes and pits, while pockets and solution notches occur on the walls of the blocks.

Kál Basin: Pseudokarren on Sandstone

Notre groupe de recherche a mesure la vitesse de recul d'un mur de marbre sur l'ile Diego de Almagro au Chili. Ce mur provenant de la dissolution. En utilisant la largeur du seuil posterieur a la fonte du glacier, la vitesse est evaluee entre 0,4 et 0,5 mm par an. Nous avons note egalement que la vitesse de recul est environ dix fois superieure a la vitesse d'erosion du marbre. Pour cette raison, les strates de marbre reculent plus vite qu'elles ne s'abaissent.

Vitesse de recul d'un escarpement lapiazé (Ile Diego de Almagro, Patagonie, Chili)

L'etude sur les surfaces lapiazees proposee dans cet article a ete realisee dans le massif de Tote-Gebirge .en Autriche. Il s'agit d'apprehender l'agencement de microformes qu'on rencontre frequemment dans les lapies, notamment le developpement "de buttes de lapies" et de "hums de lapies". Une classification de ces microformes est ici proposee. Ces microformes se developpent souvent a l'extremite des rigoles, a la convergence des rigoles ou encore par un phenomene de capture regressive. Apres etude de ces microformes de lapies, sont presentees les differentes methodes mises en place pour etudier en detail les lapies. Ces methodes de releve nous ont permis de mieux saisir le developpement des "buttes de lapies" et des "hums de lapies" ainsi que leur evolution. L'etude morphogenique de ces microformes permet alors de connaitre l'âge approximatif du developpement des surfaces lapiazees. Les cartes presentees prennent en consideration l'âge relatif du developpement de ces formes karstiques et l'environnement des microformes ici etudiees.

Formes et micro-reliefs de lapiés. Approche morphométrique et morphogénique. Application au massif de Totes-Gebirge (Autriche)

Tihany is a spectacular volcanic peninsula of Lake Balaton, where more than a hundred cones deposited by thermal waters rise. The calcareous and siliceous building materials overlie basaltic tuff layers of maar-type volcanism. Their formation is related to the existence of an underlying magma chamber, which heated up the surrounding karst water. Hot karst waters spouted to the surface, where the dissolved silica and carbonates precipitated and deposited. During the stage of mofetta development hot spring water accumulated in ponds where organic limestone deposited. The further heating of karst water modified the composition of spring water and, in parallel, the composition of the cones. The mofetta stage was succeeded by the fumarola stage, when siliceous minerals precipitated from spring water and added further substances to the spring cone edifices. These minerals supplanted the calcites and filled cavities and cracks.

Thermal Spring Cones of the Tihany Peninsula

Kormend is a small town in West-Hungary, Europe. The Kormend Growth Study, launched in 1958 by Dr. Otto Eiben and, from that time on, was repeated in every 10 th year, was the first to demonstrate the existence of secular trends in growth and maturation of children. This repeated cross-sectional growth study proved to be a suitable tool to investigate several aspects of secular trends as well as differences between generations. The last survey, performed in the autumn of 2008, covered 27 body measures, monitored the maturation and the inheritance of body measures and, additionally, analyzed the link between growth and sleep disorders. In this paper the authors present an overview of the five decades of the Kormend Growth Study. Over this half-century, Kormend developed from an agricultural village into a moderately industrialized town. Its population increased, and its infrastructure improved remarkably. The growth characteristics of children also changed during this period. There were observable trends in the data, some of them evoked our concern. The physique of Kormend children became more linear but a bit fatter. Age at menarche also changed. These changes were mostly due to environmental factors covered by the concept of secular trend. Growth of Kormend children, characterized through body measurements, followed the changes of environmental factors in a fast and sensitive way.

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Gábor A. Tóth

Papers

Kál Basin: Pseudokarren on Sandstone

Vitesse de recul d'un escarpement lapiazé (Ile Diego de Almagro, Patagonie, Chili)

Formes et micro-reliefs de lapiés. Approche morphométrique et morphogénique. Application au massif de Totes-Gebirge (Autriche)

Thermal Spring Cones of the Tihany Peninsula

The körmend growth study: historical background and secular trends among children aged 3-18 years