The introduction of drinking water disinfection greatly reduced waterborne diseases. However, the reaction between disinfectants and natural organic matter in the source water leads to an unintended consequence, the formation of drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The haloacetaldehydes (HALs) are the third largest group by weight of identified DBPs in drinking water. The primary objective of this study was to analyze the occurrence and comparative toxicity of the emerging HAL DBPs. A new HAL DBP, iodoacetaldehyde (IAL) was identified. This study provided the first systematic, quantitative comparison of HAL toxicity in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The rank order of HAL cytotoxicity is tribromoacetaldehyde (TBAL) ≈ chloroacetaldehyde (CAL) > dibromoacetaldehyde (DBAL) ≈ bromochloroacetaldehyde (BCAL) ≈ dibromochloroacetaldehyde (DBCAL) > IAL > bromoacetaldehyde (BAL) ≈ bromodichloroacetaldehyde (BDCAL) > dichloroacetaldehyde (DCAL) > trichloroacetaldehyde (TCAL). The HALs were highly cytotoxic compared to other DBP chemical classes. The rank order of HAL genotoxicity is DBAL > CAL ≈ DBCAL > TBAL ≈ BAL > BDCAL>BCAL ≈ DCAL>IAL. TCAL was not genotoxic. Because of their toxicity and abundance, further research is needed to investigate their mode of action to protect the public health and the environment.

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Occurrence and Comparative Toxicity of Haloacetaldehyde Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water.

The HIWATE (Health Impacts of long-term exposure to disinfection byproducts in drinking WATEr) project was a systematic analysis that combined the epidemiology on adverse pregnancy outcomes and other health effects with long-term exposure to low levels of drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in the European Union. The present study focused on the relationship of the occurrence and concentration of DBPs with in vitro mammalian cell toxicity. Eleven drinking water samples were collected from five European countries. Each sampling location corresponded with an epidemiological study for the HIWATE program. Over 90 DBPs were identified; the range in the number of DBPs and their levels reflected the diverse collection sites, different disinfection processes, and the different characteristics of the source waters. For each sampling site, chronic mammalian cell cytotoxicity correlated highly with the numbers of DBPs identified and the levels of DBP chemical classes. Although there was a clear difference in the genotoxic responses among the drinking waters, these data did not correlate as well with the chemical analyses. Thus, the agents responsible for the genomic DNA damage observed in the HIWATE samples may be due to unresolved associations of combinations of identified DBPs, unknown emerging DBPs that were not identified, or other toxic water contaminants. This study represents the first to integrate quantitative in vitro toxicological data with analytical chemistry and human epidemiologic outcomes for drinking water DBPs.

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Occurrence and Toxicity of Disinfection Byproducts in European Drinking Waters in Relation with the HIWATE Epidemiology Study

The changes in dissolved organic matter (DOM) throughout the treatment processes in a drinking water treatment plant in Sweden and the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) were evaluated by using ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry (resolution of ∼500000 at m/z 400) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Mass spectrometric results revealed that flocculation induced substantial changes in the DOM and caused quantitative removal of DOM constituents that usually are associated with DBP formation. While half of the chromophoric DOM (CDOM) was removed by flocculation, ∼4–5 mg L–1 total organic carbon remained in the finished water. A conservative approach revealed the formation of ∼800 mass spectrometry ions with unambiguous molecular formula assignments that contained at least one halogen atom. These molecules likely represented new DBPs, which could not be prevented by the flocculation process. The most abundant m/z peaks, associated with formed DBPs, could be assigned to C5HO3Cl3, C5HO3Cl2Br, and ...

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Changes in dissolved organic matter during the treatment processes of a drinking water plant in Sweden and formation of previously unknown disinfection byproducts.

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) released the fourth edition of Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality in July 2011. In this edition, the 400-µg/L drinking-water guideline for manganese (Mn) was discontinued with the assertion that because “this health-based value is well above concentrations of manganese normally found in drinking water, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value.”

Objective: In this commentary, we review the WHO guideline for Mn in drinking water—from its introduction in 1958 through its discontinuation in 2011.

Methods: For the primary references, we used the WHO publications that documented the Mn guidelines. We used peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, published conference proceedings, and theses to identify countries with drinking water or potential drinking-water supplies exceeding 400 µg/L Mn and peer-reviewed journal articles to summarize the health effects of Mn.

Discussion: Drinking water or potential drinking-water supplies with Mn concentrations > 400 µg/L are found in a substantial number of countries worldwide. The drinking water of many tens of millions of people has Mn concentrations > 400 µg/L. Recent research on the health effects of Mn suggests that the earlier WHO guideline of 400 µg/L may have been too high to adequately protect public health.

Conclusions: The toxic effects and geographic distribution of Mn in drinking-water supplies justify a reevaluation by the WHO of its decision to discontinue its drinking-water guideline for Mn.

World Health Organization Discontinues Its Drinking-Water Guideline for Manganese

Surrounding greenness, proximity to city parks and pregnancy outcomes in Kaunas cohort study.

Evidence for an association between exposure during pregnancy to trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water and impaired fetal growth is still inconsistent and inconclusive, in particular, for various exposure routes. We examined the relationship of individual exposures to THMs in drinking water on low birth weight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA), and birth weight (BW) in singleton births. We conducted a cohort study of 4,161 pregnant women in Kaunas (Lithuania), using individual information on drinking water, ingestion, showering and bathing, and uptake factors of THMs in blood, to estimate an internal dose of THM. We used regression analysis to evaluate the relationship between internal THM dose and birth outcomes, adjusting for family status, education, smoking, alcohol consumption, body mass index, blood pressure, ethnic group, previous preterm, infant gender, and birth year. The estimated internal dose of THMs ranged from 0.0025 to 2.40 mg/d. We found dose-response relationships for the entire pregnancy and trimester-specific THM and chloroform internal dose and risk for LBW and a reduction in BW. The adjusted odds ratio for third tertile vs. first tertile chloroform internal dose of entire pregnancy was 2.17, 95% CI 1.19-3.98 for LBW; the OR per every 0.1 μg/d increase in chloroform internal dose was 1.10, 95% CI 1.01-1.19. Chloroform internal dose was associated with a slightly increased risk of SGA (OR 1.19, 95% CI 0.87-1.63 and OR 1.22, 95% CI 0.89-1.68, respectively, for second and third tertile of third trimester); the risk increased by 4% per every 0.1 μg/d increase in chloroform internal dose (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.00-1.09). THM internal dose in pregnancy varies substantially across individuals, and depends on both water THM levels and water use habits. Increased internal dose may affect fetal growth.

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Individual exposures to drinking water trihalomethanes, low birth weight and small for gestational age risk: a prospective Kaunas cohort study.

Environmental factors may affect the quality of drinking water supplied by municipal water distribution network. The aim of this study was to analyze the factors influencing changes in concentrations of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in Kaunas drinking water distribution network. Analytical study on the drinking water quality was performed. Concentrations of manganese and iron in drinking water were assessed by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Correlation between the changes in manganese concentrations and the distance from the water treatment plant was found, the correlation coefficient was -0.367; p=0.022, however, for iron it was 0.179; p = 0.148. At some sampling points the concentrations of Mn and Fe exceeded the regulated limits. To ensure the water quality and to avoid possible adverse health effects it is recommended to install Mn and Fe filter system in a consumer’s drinking water pipeline.

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Assessment of Iron and Manganese Concentration Changes in Kaunas City Drinking Water Distribution System

Controlling chemical substances and correct evaluation of danger and risk caused by them, based on scientific research are necessary in order to keep environment and public health safe. Regulation signed by European Parliament and Council to control registration, evaluation, authorization and limitation of chemical substances (REACH) is the main juridical act from the new European Union‘s policy regarding regulation of chemical substances. Objective of this research was to gather and analyze data regarding phthalates used in Lithuania‘s industry, to present data on its environmental levels in surface water, sediments, sewage treatment plant effluents, and to discuss the needs for the human biomonitoring in Lithuania. The amount of diethylhexyl phthalate yielded to Lithuania‘s industry and market, incresed 65 times from 3,7t in 2003 to 240,81t in 2007. DEHP concentrations in Lithuania in wastewater exceeded regulated annual average maximum allowable concentrations up to 27 times and maximum allowable concentrations up to 13 times. High environmental concentrations of phthalates pointed out to the needs of establishment of permanent human biomonitoring in Lithuania. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.60.2.863

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Phtalates in Lithuanian environment and needs for human biomonitoring

Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes Through Different Routes and Low Birth Weight Risk in Genetically Susceptible Women

Preterm births cause a large public-health burden because of its high prevalence, leading cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality, and environmental hazards is considered to be a potential risk factors (Adams et al., 2000; Bloom et al., 2001; Tucker & McGuire, 2004; Colvin et al. 2004; Fraser et al. 2004; Murphy et al. 2004). The frequency of preterm births is about 12–13% in the USA and 5–9% in many other developed countries; however, the rate of preterm birth has increased in many locations (Goldenberg et al., 2008). Thus, to elicit of risk factors that could predict high risk of preterm birth represents a challenge to practitioners and researchers. The increasing rate of preterm birth in recent decades, despite improvements in health care, creates an impetus to better understand and prevent this disorder. The identification of women at increased risk of preterm delivery is an important challenge. Preterm birth likely depends on a number of interacting factors, including genetic, epigenetic, and environmental risk factors (Windham et al., 2000; Plunkett & Muglia, 2008). The epidemiological data suggested that both genetic factors and socioenvironmental factors may influence preterm birth (Wang et al., 2000; Nukui et al., 2004; Lewis et al., 2006; Suh et al., 2008). Genetic studies may identify stable over time markers, which can predict preterm birth in genetically susceptible subjects and the gene-environment studies may explain how the variations in the human genome (polymorphisms) can modify the effects of exposures to environmental health hazards (Kelada et al., 2003). Given individual genetic variations of pregnant women and different environmental exposures, the study may reveal women group susceptible to environmental hazards and may explain the differences in risk of preterm birth among individuals exposed to a particular environmental toxicant (Rothman et al., 2001). Furthermore, enhanced understanding of pathologic mechanisms may allow the development of interventions that can be used to prevent or treat preterm birth. To date, however, only a relatively few studies on the association of gene-environment interactions with preterm birth have been published (Wang et al., 2002; Genc et al., 2004; Macones et al., 2004). Experimental and epidemiologic studies provide evidence that a number of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs), including trihalomethanes (THM), may be associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Epidemiological studies suggested that pregnant women

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Gediminas Balcius

Papers

Individual exposures to drinking water trihalomethanes, low birth weight and small for gestational age risk: a prospective Kaunas cohort study.

Assessment of Iron and Manganese Concentration Changes in Kaunas City Drinking Water Distribution System

Phtalates in Lithuanian environment and needs for human biomonitoring

Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes Through Different Routes and Low Birth Weight Risk in Genetically Susceptible Women

Environmental Exposures, Genetic Susceptibility and Preterm Birth