Introduction 1. Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle 2. Images of Relationship 3. Concepts of Self and Morality 4. Crisis and Transition 5. Women's Rights and Women's Judgment 6. Visions of Maturity References Index of Study Participants General Index

In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982.

Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation

Poverty in the United Kingdom

The aim was to develop and test a brief revised version of the family affluence scale. A total of 7120 students from Denmark, Greenland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Romania, Scotland and Slovakia reported on a list of 16 potential indicators of affluence. Responses were subject to item screening and test of dimensionality. Bifactor analysis revealed a strong general factor of affluence in all countries, but with additional specific factors in all countries. The specific factors mainly reflected overlapping item content. Item screening was conducted to eliminate items with low discrimination and local dependence, reducing the number of items from sixteen to six: Number of computers, number of cars, own bedroom, holidays abroad, dishwasher, and bathroom. The six-item version was estimated with Samejima’s graded response model, and tested for differential item functioning by country. Three of the six items were invariant across countries, thus anchoring the scale to a common metric across countries. The six-item scale correlated with parental reported income groups in six out of eight countries. Findings support a revision to six items in the family affluence scale.

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Psychometric Validation of the Revised Family Affluence Scale: a Latent Variable Approach

This study uses longitudinal data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study to show the extent to which episodic and more persistent poverty in early childhood and the lack of other family resources disadvantage children at the start of their school careers in terms of whether they have achieved the target indicator of ‘good level of achievement’ on the Foundation Stage Profile. Positive parenting is shown to be an important contributor to school achievement that matters for children, regardless of poverty experience or family disadvantage. It is also shown to be an important mediator in redressing the effects of poverty and disadvantage.

Poverty, family resources and children's early educational attainment: The mediating role of parenting

Child poverty is high on the policy agenda in the UK and the European Union. But poverty and deprivation is almost exclusively measured by asking adults (parents) about their incomes and living standards. Some qualitative work has been done asking children about poverty but this article develops a new, child-centric measure using children as informants. Data from two surveys run by the Children’s Society are used, both covering children aged 8–16. One included 2,000 respondents and data were linked to income data provided by parents; the other included almost 5,500 respondents and covered detailed topics relating to children’s material situation and their subjective well-being. A new ten item deprivation index was developed and children were asked whether they lacked the items, and if so whether they wanted them or not. It was found that this index explained more of the variation in subjective well-being than parental income poverty explained. This is partly because there were deprived children living in families which were not income poor and non deprived children living in families which were income poor. Child material deprivation was found to be more strongly related to low subjective well-being than the absence of deprivation was to high subjective well-being.

A Child Material Deprivation Index

This article examines the relationship between child poverty and children’s subjective well-being on the range of domains identified by Rees et al. (2010) in the Good Childhood Index. Data are taken from a school-based survey of children in England. Child poverty is measured using a child-derived index of material deprivation (proposed by Main and Bradshaw in Child Indicators Research 5(3): 503–521, 2012) and indicators of children living in households likely to qualify for minimum income benefits. After a review of relevant literature to provide background to the study, the relationship between material deprivation, qualification for minimum income benefits and various domains of children’s subjective well-being are examined. Finally, a more detailed analysis is performed on the relationship between poverty and children’s subjective well-being in the domains of family and choice, as relationships were found to be strongest in these domains. Findings show that poverty is an important predictor of subjective well-being and that the child-derived index is more successful than household qualification for minimum income benefits in explaining variation in Rees et al’s (2010) Good Childhood Index domains. This lends support to Cummins’s (Journal of Happiness Studies 1(2):133–158, 2000) argument that the relationship between income and subjective well-being exists but is confounded by mediating factors. The domains in which the association to material deprivation is especially strong – family and choice - are identified by Rees et al. (2010) as amongst the most strongly associated with overall subjective well-being.

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Child Poverty and Children’s Subjective Well-Being

Children's subjective well-being in relation to gender — What can we learn from dissatisfied children?

Together with the Innocenti Working paper on relative income poverty of children in rich countries (Bradshaw et al, 2012), this paper on multidimensional child poverty and child deprivation forms the background studies on which the Innocenti Report Card 10 is based (Measuring Child Poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world‟s rich countries). The paper focuses on child deprivation in Europe and studies the degree to which it is experienced by children in 29 countries using a child specific deprivation scale. The paper discusses the construction of a child deprivation scale and estimates a European Child Deprivation Index for the 29 countries using 14 specific child related variables made available by the child module of the EU-SILC 2009 survey. The 29 countries are ranked according to the degree of child deprivation: the results show considerable differences between the countries. The (non-)overlap between child deprivation and child monetary poverty is considerable but limited. In general the results indicate where policy interventions can produce improvements.

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Child deprivation, multidimensional poverty and monetary poverty in europe

The Good Childhood Report 2014 is the third in a series of annual reports published by The Children's Society about how children in the UK feel about their lives. The first part of the report presents an updated picture of overall levels of subjective well-being in the UK. The second part of the report looks at new evidence on four different factors that are associated with children's subjective well-being: children's activities and behaviours, material conditions - deprivation, relative wealth and changes over time, parental subjective well-being and mental health, and parenting behaviours.

Gill Main

Papers

A Child Material Deprivation Index

Child Poverty and Children’s Subjective Well-Being

Children's subjective well-being in relation to gender — What can we learn from dissatisfied children?

Child deprivation, multidimensional poverty and monetary poverty in europe

The Good Childhood Report 2014