I have developed "tennis elbow" from lugging this book around the past four weeks, but it is worth the pain, the effort, and the aspirin. It is also worth the (relatively speaking) bargain price. Including appendixes, this book contains 894 pages of text. The entire panorama of the neural sciences is surveyed and examined, and it is comprehensive in its scope, from genomes to social behaviors. The editors explicitly state that the book is designed as "an introductory text for students of biology, behavior, and medicine," but it is hard to imagine any audience, interested in any fragment of neuroscience at any level of sophistication, that would not enjoy this book. The editors have done a masterful job of weaving together the biologic, the behavioral, and the clinical sciences into a single tapestry in which everyone from the molecular biologist to the practicing psychiatrist can find and appreciate his or

Principles of Neural Science

Past behavior guides future responses through 2 processes. Well-practiced behaviors in constant contexts recur because the processing that initiates and controls their performance becomes automatic. Frequency of past behavior then reflects habit strength and has a direct effect on future performance. Alternately, when behaviors are not well learned or when they are performed in unstable or difficult contexts, conscious decision making is likely to be necessary to initiate and carry out the behavior. Under these conditions, past behavior (along with attitudes and subjective norms) may contribute to intentions, and behavior is guided by intentions. These relations between past behavior and future behavior are substantiated in a meta-analytic synthesis of prior research on behavior prediction and in a primary research investigation. In everyday explanations of behavior, habits denote one's customary ways of behaving. Claiming that one performed a behavior because of habit provides an understandable explanation for an act that otherwise might seem irrational or even harmful. Habits also are featured in the popular psychology literature in the form of self-help books designed to identify readers' existing habits, evaluate habits' effectiveness in meeting goals, and establish more desirable habits. Habits are not, however, important constructs in most contemporary social psychological models of human behavior. Early in their careers, most psychology graduate students learn that frequency of past behavior, a standard indicator of habit strength (Triandis, 1977, 1980), is the best predictor of

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Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior.

This paper describes and reviews the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The focus is on evidence supporting the further extension of the TPB in various ways. Empirical and theoretical evidence to support the addition of 6 variables to the TPB is reviewed: belief salience measures, past behaviodhabit, perceived behavioral control (PBC) vs. selfefficacy, moral norms, self-identity, and affective beliefs. In each case there appears to be growing empirical evidence to support their addition to the TPB and some understanding of the processes by which they may be related to other TPB variables, intentions, and behavior. Two avenues for expansion of the TPB are presented. First, the possibility of incorporating the TPB into a dual-process model of attitude-behavior relationships is reviewed. Second, the expansion of the TPB to include consideration of the volitional processes determining how goal intentions may lead to goal achievement is discussed.

Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Review and Avenues for Further Research

Statistical Methods for Health Care Research

A brain-computer interface (BCI) is a hardware and software communications system that permits cerebral activity alone to control computers or external devices. The immediate goal of BCI research is to provide communications capabilities to severely disabled people who are totally paralyzed or 'locked in' by neurological neuromuscular disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, brain stem stroke, or spinal cord injury. Here, we review the state-of-the-art of BCIs, looking at the different steps that form a standard BCI: signal acquisition, preprocessing or signal enhancement, feature extraction, classification and the control interface. We discuss their advantages, drawbacks, and latest advances, and we survey the numerous technologies reported in the scientific literature to design each step of a BCI. First, the review examines the neuroimaging modalities used in the signal acquisition step, each of which monitors a different functional brain activity such as electrical, magnetic or metabolic activity. Second, the review discusses different electrophysiological control signals that determine user intentions, which can be detected in brain activity. Third, the review includes some techniques used in the signal enhancement step to deal with the artifacts in the control signals and improve the performance. Fourth, the review studies some mathematic algorithms used in the feature extraction and classification steps which translate the information in the control signals into commands that operate a computer or other device. Finally, the review provides an overview of various BCI applications that control a range of devices.

/pdf/brain-computer-interfaces-a-review-2z42gnpdfy.pdf

Brain Computer Interfaces, a Review

https://www.archives-pmr.org/article/S0003-9993(03)00376-9/pdf

Cardiorespiratory fitness and walking ability in subacute stroke patients.

Booth, John, Michael J. McKenna, Patricia A. Ruell, Tom H. Gwinn, Glen M. Davis, Martin W. Thompson, Alison R. Harmer, Sandra K. Hunter, and John R. Sutton. Impaired calcium pump function does not ...

Impaired calcium pump function does not slow relaxation in human skeletal muscle after prolonged exercise

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation has grown in popularity as a therapeutic device for training and an ambulation aid to human paralyzed muscle. Despite its current clinical use, few studies have attempted to concurrently investigate the functional and intramuscular adaptations which occur after electrical stimulation training. Six individuals with a spinal cord injury performed 10 weeks of electrical stimulation leg cycle training (30 min d(-1), 3 d week(-1)). The paralyzed vastus lateralis muscle showed significant alterations in skeletal muscle characteristics after the training, indicated by an improvement in total work output (52-112 kJ; P < 0.05), an increase in fiber cross-sectional area (18 to 41 x 10(2) microm(2); P < 0.05), a reduction in the percentage of type IIX fibers (75% to 12%; P < 0.05), a decrease in myosin heavy chain IIx (68% to 44%; P < 0.05), an increase in capillary density (2-3.5 capillaries around fiber; P < 0.05) and increases in activity levels of citrate synthase (7-16 mU mg(-1) protein) and hexokinase (1.2-2.4 mU mg(-1) protein). This study showed that 10 weeks of electrical stimulation training of human paralyzed muscle induces concurrent improvements in functional capacity and oxidative metabolism.

Effects of electrical stimulation-induced leg training on skeletal muscle adaptability in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury below the first thoracic vertebra defines the condition of paraplegia, with common medical sequelae including impaired motor function, bone and muscle atrophy, poor myocardial function, and a general decline of physical fitness. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the role of exercise for improving the physical fitness, health, and rehabilitation potential of individuals rendered wheelchair dependent following spinal cord injury. This brief review examines the pathophysiology of paraplegia, outlines useful strategies for cardiorespiratory fitness assessment, discusses the current levels of cardiorespiratory fitness in individuals with paraplegia, and highlights a few unique responses to acute exercise in this population.

Exercise capacity of individuals with paraplegia.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether changes in strength or cardiorespiratory fitness after exercise training improve walking ability in individuals who have had a stroke.

DESIGN: A sham exercise-controlled, randomized two-by-two factorial design, in which the two factors investigated were cycle training (AEROBIC) and resistance training (STRENGTH).

SETTING: University exercise laboratory.

PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-two individuals with a history of stroke (aged 63±9; time since stroke, 57±54 months).

INTERVENTION: Participants undertook 30 exercise sessions over 10 to 12 weeks. Depending on group allocation, individuals underwent aerobic cycling plus sham progressive resistance training (PRT) (n=13), sham cycling plus PRT (n=13), aerobic cycling plus PRT (n=14), or sham cycling plus sham PRT (n=12).

MEASUREMENTS: Primary outcomes were 6-minute walk distance, habitual and fast gait velocities, and stair climbing power. Secondary outcomes included measures of cardiorespiratory fitness; muscle strength, power, and endurance; and psychosocial attributes.

RESULTS: Neither AEROBIC nor STRENGTH improved walking distance or gait velocity significantly more than sham exercise, although STRENGTH significantly improved participants' stair climbing power by 17% (P=.009), as well as their muscle strength, power, and endurance; cycling peak power output; and self-efficacy. Conversely, AEROBIC improved indicators of cardiorespiratory fitness only. Cycling plus PRT produced larger effects than either single modality for mobility and impairment outcomes.

CONCLUSION: Single-modality exercises targeted at existing impairments do not optimally address the functional deficits of walking but do ameliorate the underlying impairments. The underlying cardiovascular and musculoskeletal impairments are significantly modifiable years after stroke with targeted robust exercise.

Comparison of effect of aerobic cycle training and progressive resistance training on walking ability after stroke: a randomized sham exercise-controlled study.

Glen M. Davis

Papers

Cardiorespiratory fitness and walking ability in subacute stroke patients.

Impaired calcium pump function does not slow relaxation in human skeletal muscle after prolonged exercise

Effects of electrical stimulation-induced leg training on skeletal muscle adaptability in spinal cord injury

Exercise capacity of individuals with paraplegia.

Comparison of effect of aerobic cycle training and progressive resistance training on walking ability after stroke: a randomized sham exercise-controlled study.