Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena (Patton, 1999). Triangulation also has been viewed as a qualitative research strategy to test validity through the convergence of information from different sources. Denzin (1978) and Patton (1999) identified four types of triangulation: (a) method triangulation, (b) investigator triangulation, (c) theory triangulation, and (d) data source triangulation. The current article will present the four types of triangulation followed by a discussion of the use of focus groups (FGs) and in-depth individual (IDI) interviews as an example of data source triangulation in qualitative inquiry.

The Use of Triangulation in Qualitative Research

http://library.um.ac.id/free-contents/downloadpdf.php/buku/focus-groups-as-qualitative-research-by-morgan-david-l-11476.pdf

Focus groups as qualitative research / by Morgan, David L.

Nurses may acquire an infection during the provision of nursing care because of occupational exposure to microorganisms. Relevant literature reports that, compliance with Standard Precautions (a set of guidelines that can protect health care professionals from being exposed to microorganisms) is low among nurses. Additionally, high rates of exposure to microorganisms among nurses via several modes (needlesticks, hand contamination with blood, exposure to air-transmitted microorganisms) occur. The aim of the study was to study the factors that influence nurses' compliance with Standard Precaution in order to avoid occupational exposure to pathogens, by employing a qualitative research design. A focus group approach was used to explore the issue under study. Four focus groups (N = 30) were organised to elicit nurses' perception of the factors that influence their compliance with Standard Precautions. The Health Belief Model (HBM) was used as the theoretical framework and the data were analysed according to predetermined criteria. Following content analysis, factors that influence nurses' compliance emerged. Most factors could be applied to one of the main domains of the HBM: benefits, barriers, severity, susceptibility, cues to action, and self-efficacy. Changing current behavior requires knowledge of the factors that may influence nurses' compliance with Standard Precautions. This knowledge will facilitate in the implementation of programs and preventive actions that contribute in avoiding of occupational exposure.

/pdf/factors-influencing-nurses-compliance-with-standard-4xeu7dxrqf.pdf

Factors influencing nurses' compliance with Standard Precautions in order to avoid occupational exposure to microorganisms: A focus group study

Aims. The review examines from international research: the extent to which practitioners comply with infection control precautions; the pertinent issues that are considered influential in compliance; what strategies have been evaluated to instigate positive behaviour changes amongst practitioners and the effect of these interventions.

Background.  Internationally, standard/universal precautions (UP) are regarded as fundamental in the prevention and control of infection, and effective in protecting practitioners and patients. However, adherence has been problematic and the practice of standard/UPs is globally suboptimal.

Design and methods.  Literature review where relevant evidence was identified using several electronic databases, from 1994 to 2006, with number of key terms utilized. Data were extracted by using key headings, which facilitated analysis.

Results.  Thirty-seven studies were appraised. Twenty-four related to measuring practitioner compliance and 13 studies that evaluated the effect of a research intervention on compliance. In addition, other studies were included which examined the specific reasons for suboptimal compliance, or discussed infection control precautions generally.

Conclusions.  Compliance to infection control precautions is internationally suboptimal. The evidence confirms that compliance to specific aspects of standard/UPs varies, and practitioners are selective in their application of recommended practice. Compliance does improve following a structured intervention; however, research fails to indicate for how long the intervention affects practitioner compliance, or whether compliance after a period of time returns to the norm. Several reasons for non-compliance are discussed, and recommendations for future research are suggested.

Relevance to clinical practice.  Suboptimal compliance has significant implications for staff safety, patient protection and the care environment. Infection control teams and researchers need to consider the reasons for non-compliance and provide a supportive environment that is conducive to the routine, long-term application of standard precautions.

A review of the evidence for suboptimal compliance of healthcare practitioners to standard/universal infection control precautions

Nurses' experiences of continuing professional development.

Focus groups are not simply a discussion between people, but are focused interviews exploring interactions between participants. In this paper, Ian Mansell, Glynis Bennett, Ruth Northway, Donna Mead and Laurie Moseley explore the complexities and practicalities of using focus groups in research, with reference to a study of palliative care services.

The learning curve: the advantages and disadvantages in the use of focus groups as a method of data collection.

Background. Universal precautions are a set of guidelines which aim to protect health care workers from blood-borne infections. Community nurses often have to deliver care to people in less than ideal home conditions, their ability to comply with all universal precautions may therefore be compromised.

Aims and objectives.  This paper presents the findings of a questionnaire survey which aimed to explore community nurses’ experience and practices of using universal precautions.

Design and methods.  A questionnaire survey was used for this study. All community learning disability nurses, community mental health nurses and generic community nurses from one Welsh Health Authority were surveyed (n = 543) with a response rate of 70%.

Results.  The majority of community nurses reported compliance with universal precautions, although a small number of nurses stated that they re-sheathed needles, inappropriately stored sharps containers, inadequately wore gloves and experienced difficulties in handwashing.

Conclusions and relevance to clinical practice.  Community nurses work in a unique and unpredictable environment, which may result in nurses being unable to comply with existing universal precautions guidelines. The production of new infection control guidelines for the community by the National Institute of Clinical Excellence in June 2003, has addressed some of the difficulties faced by community nurses.

Glynis Bennett

Papers

The learning curve: the advantages and disadvantages in the use of focus groups as a method of data collection.

Universal precautions: a survey of community nurses' experience and practice.

The role of the nurse lecturer in the supervision of students' essays, projects and assignments: results of an all Wales questionnaire survey.