Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) can be understood as the integration of sensing and intelligence to enable the structure loading and damage-provoking conditions to be recorded, analyzed, localized, and predicted in such a way that nondestructive testing becomes an integral part of them. In addition, SHM systems can include actuation devices to take proper reaction or correction actions. SHM sensing requirements are very well suited for the application of optical fiber sensors (OFS), in particular, to provide integrated, quasi-distributed or fully distributed technologies. In this tutorial, after a brief introduction of the basic SHM concepts, the main fiber optic techniques available for this application are reviewed, emphasizing the four most successful ones. Then, several examples of the use of OFS in real structures are also addressed, including those from the renewable energy, transportation, civil engineering and the oil and gas industry sectors. Finally, the most relevant current technical challenges and the key sector markets are identified. This paper provides a tutorial introduction, a comprehensive background on this subject and also a forecast of the future of OFS for SHM. In addition, some of the challenges to be faced in the near future are addressed.

Fiber Optic Sensors in Structural Health Monitoring

A state-of-the-art review is presented regarding the research and development of in situ fibre optic damage detection and assessment systems (FODDAS) embedded in fibre-reinforced composite structures. Representative individual fibre optic strain sensors and distributed sensor networks are briefly described. A major emphasis is placed on their capabilities for detecting damage, determining damage location and assessing the nature of damage, arising primarily from specific events such as impacts or quasi-static stress overloads. The main features of such systems as custom-built and structure-specific units with minimal human involvement are highlighted. Issues that could affect the validity of the performance of such strain sensors are discussed. Fracture and non-fracture of fibre optic sensors are identified as two fundamentally different approaches for damage detection and their primary features are discussed in relation to location determination and evaluation of the nature of damage. The major advantages and limitations of each approach are discussed. Directions and areas of potential future research in the development of related FODDAS are highlighted.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/11/6/314/pdf

Damage detection and assessment in fibre-reinforced composite structures with embedded fibre optic sensors-review

A sensor embedded in the composite laminate can act as a temperature transducer during the composite cure mechanism. Once the composite is cured, the same sensor can be used to provide the information about the mechanical changes that influence the performance of the material. Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor is one such sensor which one can use for the composite cure monitoring. We present here the results obtained with an associated FBG sensor system for the cure monitoring of smart composites. The performance of the embedded FBG sensor smart composite specimens under 3- and 4-point bending conditions are also being investigated. Finally, the performance analysis has been extended to cantilever specimens.

Cure monitoring of smart composites using Fiber Bragg Grating based embedded sensors

A manufacturing method was developed for integrating a network of distributed piezoceramic actuators/sensors onto laminated carbon/epoxy composite structures. The network of built-in actuators/sensors is used to monitor the health of the host composite structure by acquiring information about the condition of the structure throughout its service life. The manufacturing method applies the printed circuit technique to fabricate a thin flexible layer with a network of piezoceramics. It is used as an extra ply that is either inserted into or bonded onto the surface of a composite laminate to give it actuating and sensing capabilities. This layer that provides the added functionality is referred to as the “SMART Layer” (Stanford Multi-Actuator-Receiver Transduction Layer). Using the developed method, several SMART Layer prototypes have been fabricated and embedded inside carbon fiber composite laminates successfully. Tests were conducted on composite panels integrated with the SMART Layer to validate the design and the manufacturing procedure.

Manufacturing of composite structures with a built-in network of piezoceramics

Real-time cure monitoring of composite materials is very important to improve the performance of advanced composite materials. It is very difficult to monitor the cure process online using conventional methods. Fiber optic sensors in smart composite materials provide a unique opportunity to monitor the cure process of composite materials in real time by using embedded sensors. In this paper, extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer (EFPI) and fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are embedded in carbon/epoxy composite laminates and used to monitor the cure process simultaneously. Furthermore, measurements of residual strains of composite laminates during the cure have been performed. The results show that both EFPI and FBG sensors can be used to monitor the strain development of composite laminates with and without damage during cure. An excellent correlation between the EFPI and FBG sensors is presented.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/11/2/308/pdf

Real-time cure monitoring of smart composite materials using extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer and fiber Bragg grating sensors

This paper presents a general overview of a number of optical fibre sensor systems which have been developed and used in advanced fibre-reinforced composites for in-situ process and condition monitoring. The in-situ process monitoring techniques were optical-fibre-based evanescent wave spectroscopy, transmission near-infrared spectroscopy and refractive index monitoring. The optical fibre sensors were successful in tracking the cure reaction. The condition monitoring of advanced fibre-reinforced composites was carried out using two intensity-based optical fibre sensor systems: an extrinsic multi-mode Fabry-Perot sensor and Bragg gratings. In addition to this, the feasibility of using the reinforcing fibre as a light guide was demonstrated. These sensor systems were evaluated under quasi-static, impact and fatigue loading. The test specimens consisted of prepreg-based carbon-fibre-reinforced epoxy and glass-fibre-reinforced epoxy filament-wound tubes. Excellent correlation was obtained between surface-mounted strain gauges and the embedded optical fibre sensors. The feasibility of using these sensor systems for the detection of impact damage and stiffness reduction in the composite due to fatigue damage was successfully demonstrated.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/7/2/002/pdf

In-situ process and condition monitoring of advanced fibre-reinforced composite materials using optical fibre sensors

This paper describes a comparative study of in situ cure monitoring by three methods: (i) evanescent wave spectroscopy; (ii) refractive index change; and (iii) near-infrared spectroscopy. The cure characteristics of an epoxy/amine reaction were followed in real-time during the crosslinking reaction via the above-mentioned techniques. The evanescent wave spectroscopy technique was based on monitoring the characteristic infrared absorption bands of the resin system to compute the concentration of the amine hardener as a function of cure time. Good correlation was obtained between the evanescent wave spectroscopy data and a conventional method of studying cure reactions, i.e. infrared spectroscopy. During the cure reaction, the refractive index of the resin system increases as a function of the crosslink density. This increase in the refractive index was monitored using two optical fibre techniques. In the first case, a declad region of the optical fibre was immersed in the resin system and in the second method an optical fibre reflectometer was used to track the changes in the refractive index. Once again, good correlation was obtained between the optical fibre techniques and infrared spectroscopy cure data. The results obtained from the optical fibre sensor experiments were used to model the cure kinetics of the resin system. The cure kinetic models were found to predict the cure reaction up to approximately 60% of the reaction.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/5/4/005/pdf

In situ cure monitoring of epoxy resins using optical fibre sensors

This paper reports a comparative study undertaken for different types of optical fibre sensor developed to monitor the cure of an epoxy resin system. The optical fibre sensors used to monitor the cure process were based on transmission spectroscopy, evanescent wave spectroscopy and refractive index monitoring. The transmission sensor was prepared by aligning two optical fibres within a specially prepared sleeve with a gap between the optical fibre end faces. During cure, resin from the specimen flowed into the gap between the optical fibres allowing transmission spectra of the resin to be obtained. The evanescent wave sensor was prepared by stripping the cladding from a high refractive index core optical fibre. The prepared sensor was embedded in the sample and attenuated total reflectance spectra recorded from the resin/core boundary. Refractive index monitoring was undertaken using a high refractive index core optical fibre which had a small portion of its cladding removed. The prepared sensor was embedded in the resin specimen and light from a single wavelength source was launched into the fibre. Changes in the guiding characteristics of the sensor due to refractive index changes at the resin/core boundary were used to monitor the progress of the cure reaction. The transmission and evanescent wave spectroscopy sensors were used to follow changes in characteristic near-infrared absorption bands of the resin during the cure reaction over the range 1450-1700 nm for the evanescent sensor and 2100-2250 nm for the transmission sensor. Consequently, these techniques required tuneable wavelength sources covering specific wavelength ranges. However, the refractive index based sensor used a single wavelength source. Therefore the equipment costs for this type of sensor were considerably less. Additionally, the refractive index sensor did not require a single wavelength source at any particular wavelength and could be applied to any spectral region in which the optical fibre would transmit light. The advantages and disadvantages of these three methods are discussed.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/7/4/017/pdf

In-situ cure monitoring using optical fibre sensors - a comparative study

This paper reports on a comparative study undertaken for different types of optical fiber sensor developed to monitor the cure of an epoxy resin system. The optical fiber sensors used to monitor the cure process were based on transmission spectroscopy, evanescent wave spectroscopy and refractive index monitoring. The transmission sensor was prepared by aligning two optical fibers within a specially prepared sleeve with a gap between the optical fiber end-faces. During cure, resin from the specimen flowed into the gap between the optical fibers allowing transmission spectra of the resin to be obtained. The evanescent wave sensor was prepared by stripping the cladding from a high refractive index core optical fiber. The prepared sensor was embedded in the sample and attenuated total reflectance spectra recorded from the resin/core boundary. Refractive index monitoring was undertaken using a high refractive index core optical fiber which had a small portion of its cladding removed. The prepared sensor was embedded in the resin specimen and light from a single wavelength source was launched into the fiber. Changes in the guiding characteristics of the sensor due to refractive index changes at the resin/core boundary were used to monitor the progress of the cure reaction. The transmission and evanescent wave spectroscopy sensors were used to follow changes in characteristic near-infrared absorption bands of the resin over the range 1450 - 1700 nm during the cure reaction. Consequently these techniques required tunable wavelength sources covering specific wavelength ranges. However, the refractive index based sensor used a single wavelength source. Therefore the equipment costs for this type of sensor were considerably less. Additionally, the refractive index sensor did not require a single wavelength source at any particular wavelength and could be applied to any spectral region in which the optical fiber would transmit light. The advantages and disadvantages of these three methods are discussed.

Comparative study of optical fiber cure-monitoring methods

OPTICAL FIBRE EVANESCENT WAVE CURE MONITORING OF EPOXY RESINSG. R. Powell, P. A. Crosby, G. F. Fernando#, C. M. France, R. C. Spooncer', D. N. Waters*.Brunel University, Department of Materials Technology, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK.*Department of Manufacturing and Engineering Systems, Department of Chemistry.#To whom correspondence should be addressed.ABSTRACTTwo types optical fibre sensors (OFS) were investigated for use in monitoring the cure of an epoxy-amine resin system: (i)an evanescent wave sensor and (ii) a refractive index sensor. The evanescent wave sensor was used to detect changes inconcentration of the active chemical species involved in the cure reaction via evanescent wave near-infrared spectroscopy.By using the optical fibre as an attenuated total reflection waveguide, spectra were collected over the range 1490-1570 nmat regular time intervals during the cure. This technique enabled the depletion of amine to be monitored. Results obtainedvia this method were fitted to kinetic models which allowed prediction of the reaction rate at different cure temperatures andconversions. The optical fibre evanescent wave sensor results were compared with data obtained using an established curemonitoring technique (FT-IR spectroscopy).A theoretical model of the evanescent sensor has been used which describes the relationship between evanescent absorptionas a function of absorber concentration and refractive index. Predictions of sensor response were undertaken using absorptiondata from FT-JR spectroscopy and refractive index results as a function of cure time. The predicted sensor response was thencompared with experimentally obtained sensor data.An optical fibre sensor which monitored the cure process via refractive index change was also investigated. Sensors wereset up to allow simultaneous collection of data during cure from the OFS, together with data from transmission near-infraredspectroscopy and Abbe refractometry. In this way the response of the sensor to changes in the cure state of the resin,refractive index and temperature were compared.Keywords: optical fiber sensors, cure monitoring, epoxy resins, evanescent wave, near-infrared spectroscopy, refractometry.1. INTRODUCTIONEpoxy resin and amine hardener systems are used extensively in advanced fibre reinforced composites (AFRC). Themechanical properties of AFRC are generally dominated by the properties of the reinforcing fibres, however, the matrix-dominated properties can be affected by the crosslink density of the resin system used. The crosslink density is in turninfluenced by the chemical state of the resin before cure (including the moisture content) and the processing conditions usedto cure the resin'. It is therefore attractive to have a cure sensor which can determine the state of cure of a compositecomponent at locations remote from the composite surface and which will not affect the integrity of the finished componentafter processing.To date, many in-situ techniques have been employed to monitor the state of cure of a composite or resin system. Theseinclude electrical resistance and dielectric analysis2, ultrasonic wave propagation3 ,

Graham R. Powell

Papers

In-situ process and condition monitoring of advanced fibre-reinforced composite materials using optical fibre sensors

In situ cure monitoring of epoxy resins using optical fibre sensors

In-situ cure monitoring using optical fibre sensors - a comparative study

Comparative study of optical fiber cure-monitoring methods

Optical fiber evanescent wave cure monitoring of epoxy resins