Soil Chemical Analysis

It remains unclear whether biodiversity buffers ecosystems against climate extremes, which are becoming increasingly frequent worldwide. Early results suggested that the ecosystem productivity of diverse grassland plant communities was more resistant, changing less during drought, and more resilient, recovering more quickly after drought, than that of depauperate communities. However, subsequent experimental tests produced mixed results. Here we use data from 46 experiments that manipulated grassland plant diversity to test whether biodiversity provides resistance during and resilience after climate events. We show that biodiversity increased ecosystem resistance for a broad range of climate events, including wet or dry, moderate or extreme, and brief or prolonged events. Across all studies and climate events, the productivity of low-diversity communities with one or two species changed by approximately 50% during climate events, whereas that of high-diversity communities with 16–32 species was more resistant, changing by only approximately 25%. By a year after each climate event, ecosystem productivity had often fully recovered, or overshot, normal levels of productivity in both high- and low-diversity communities, leading to no detectable dependence of ecosystem resilience on biodiversity. Our results suggest that biodiversity mainly stabilizes ecosystem productivity, and productivity-dependent ecosystem services, by increasing resistance to climate events. Anthropogenic environmental changes that drive biodiversity loss thus seem likely to decrease ecosystem stability, and restoration of biodiversity to increase it, mainly by changing the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate events.

Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes

Lignocellulosic materials are among the most promising alternative energy resources that can be utilized to produce cellulosic ethanol. However, the physical and chemical structure of lignocellulosic materials forms strong native recalcitrance and results in relatively low yield of ethanol from raw lignocellulosic materials. An appropriate pretreatment method is required to overcome this recalcitrance. For decades various pretreatment processes have been developed to improve the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass. Each pretreatment process has a different specificity on altering the physical and chemical structure of lignocellulosic materials. In this paper, the chemical structure of lignocellulosic biomass and factors likely affect the digestibility of lignocellulosic materials are discussed, and then an overview about the most important pretreatment processes available are provided. In particular, the combined pretreatment strategies are reviewed for improving the enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulose and realizing the comprehensive utilization of lignocellulosic materials.

The role of pretreatment in improving the enzymatic hydrolysis

A rapidly growing body of research examines whether human conflict can be affected by climatic changes. Drawing from archeology, criminology, economics, geography, history, political science, and psychology, we assemble and analyze the 60 most rigorous quantitative studies and document, for the first time, a remarkable convergence of results. We find strong causal evidence linking climatic events to human conflict across a range of spatial and temporal scales and across all major regions of the world. The magnitude of climate's influence is substantial: for each 1 standard deviation (1σ) change in climate toward warmer temperatures or more extreme rainfall, median estimates indicate that the frequency of interpersonal violence rises 4% and the frequency of intergroup conflict rises 14%. Because locations throughout the inhabited world are expected to warm 2-4σ by 2050, amplified rates of human conflict could represent a large and critical impact of anthropogenic climate change.

Quantifying the Influence of Climate on Human Conflict

To overcome the energy demand and environmental issues by applying ecofriendly techniques to produce green energy are getting high attentions in these days. Lignocellulosic materials are the most abundant resource of biomass on earth and these materials have become vital for anaerobic digestion. However, the structure of lignocellulosic materials is difficult to degrade during anaerobic digestion. Physical, thermal, chemical and thermochemical techniques have been widely used for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials, which might facilitate the degradation of pretreated lignocellulosic materials during anaerobic digestion. Further, in recent years many updated and advanced techniques have also been developed for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials. Therefore, this study systematically summaries the novel techniques and chemicals used for physical, thermal, chemical and thermochemical pretreatments of lignocellulosic materials for the enhancement of anaerobic digestion. In addition, the mechanism, applications, advantages and disadvantages and challenges of each type of the pretreatment have also been identified. Finally, this study will provide new ideas for the development of new pretreatment techniques. 

A review of recent advancements in pretreatment techniques of lignocellulosic materials for biogas production: Opportunities and Limitations

With the draining of petroleum derivatives, expanding natural contamination issues, there has been rising enthusiasm for the examination of lignocellulosic biomass for an alternative fsource of energy. Characterization of various biomass, its intermediate, and products is a need for conversion of any biomass to biofuels. Chemical composition of lignocellulosic biomass is an essential point for developing potent pretreatment technologies to break its rigid structure, conversion of sugar by different enzymes mainly cellulose to glucose and even various microorganisms which can ferment sugars into bioethanol and other value-added green chemicals. In this present review work, the main focus is on the proximate and ultimate analysis of different feedstocks, and altered pretreatment techniques such as physical, chemical, physicochemical, and biological methods for bioethanol production have been addressed, which ultimately will help in overcoming the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic biomass by degrading the lignin fraction, breaking down of lignocellulose components, hydrolysis, and fermentation process. Recently, combined pretreatment is gaining popularity as it is more favorable and profitable for improving chemical yield and process of enzymatic hydrolysis of LBs, but it increases the cost of operation. Acid pretreatment, steam explosion, and hydrothermal processes all together show a comparatively high effect on degrading hemicelluloses fraction. Alkali, oxidative, and organosolv pretreatment are more efficient in removing and degrading of lignin portion. This present study will empower a better idea and knowledge of the available process with the upcoming advanced processes which would help to overcome the limitations and establish technology to facilitate the pretreatment methods to make an authentic concept of biorefinery.

A comprehensive review of characterization, pretreatment and its applications on different lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production

Ecosystems, and the biodiversity and services they support, are intrinsically dependent on climate. During the twentieth century, climate change has had documented impacts on ecological systems, and impacts are expected to increase as climate change continues and perhaps even accelerates. This technical input to the National Climate Assessment synthesizes our scientific understanding of the way climate change is affecting biodiversity, ecosystems, ecosystem services, and what strategies might be employed to decrease current and future risks. In developing countries, the landscape encompassing agricultural land is vital for maintaining biodiversity and providing ecosystem services. The consequences of biomass shot on woody species richness and composition were analysed in forests underneath communal and government management. Interviews on forest use and perception of forest condition and system service delivery were conducted in farmer households bordering the forests. At the same time, the importance of forest ecosystem services has been progressively recognized. Though some initiatives aimed toward protective each biodiversity and ecosystem services are emerging, information gaps still exist regarding their relationships and potential trade-offs in forests. Considerably additional woody species were found within the community-managed forests. Species richness was negatively correlative with walking distance from the closest village and increasing levels of anthropogenic disturbance. There is increasing proof that diversity contributes to forest ecosystem functioning and also the provision of ecosystem services. Here, we are including some of the ecosystem services such as biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat. Community forests were typically less degraded than government managed forests, giving support to common pool resource management. Woody vegetation depicted an important supply of fuelwood, timber, fodder, edibles, aromatic and healthful plants. Employing a multidisciplinary framework to analyse system integrity and system service delivery enabled a finer understanding of those complicated agroecological systems, giving support to evidence-based management and conservation coming up with for the long run. Planting mixed-species forests ought to tend additional thought as they're probably to supply a wider range of ecosystem services at intervals the forest and for adjacent land uses.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-030-56542-8_22.pdf

Forest Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity

Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India for livelihoods.

Nitrogen (N) and light are critical determinants of plant growth and productivity. The present study attempts to quantify the underlying mechanisms and effects of light, N levels, and seed source on growth, biomass, nutrient allocations, and nutrient use efficiencies (NUEs) in seedlings of Pongamia pinnata. The differential and fixed hypothesis and isometric and allometric relationships were also examined. Six morphologically superior seed sources of P. pinnata from three contrasting agro-climatic conditions of India were evaluated with application of two levels of both N (low dose @ 5g plant-1 and 15 g plant-1) and light regimes (full light-100% and low light-50%) in mother nursery. Among the seed sources, the native Raipur seed source was found outstanding in growth, biomass, and nutrient use efficiency. N was more critical than light in promoting growth in seedlings of P. pinnata. High N and high light regimes increased shoot/root ratios. The components showed allometric growth and followed a differential allocation pattern. The exploitation of suitable genetic resources combined with managerial interventions is necessary for development of quality planting stock of P. pinnata. Nutrient use efficiencies, biomass production, and their allocation were important indicators and criteria for selection. The study suggests that Raipur and Jabalpur seed sources having high NUE should be grown along with adequate N application (15 g plant-1) and light conditions.

Effect of seed source, light, and nitrogen levels on biomass and nutrient allocation pattern in seedlings of Pongamia pinnata

A bstract Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, an important multipurpose tree prized source of biodiesel, is difficult to propagate commercially either by stem / root cuttings or layering. The present investigation is carried out to regenerate the species through stem cuttings with different doses of auxins in juvenile and mature stem cuttings during three seasons. Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) was found to be effective auxin in inducing rooting. The 800 mg L−1 IBA was outstanding and yielded over 80% rooting in juvenile cuttings. Cuttings taken from juvenile plants gave significantly higher rooting than those from mature trees, irrespective of auxin treatment and season. Among three seasons, spring (March) was the best for rooting of mature stem cuttings that yielded almost 60% rooting with 800 mg L−1 IBA treatment. Orthogonal contrast analysis showed that the linear, quadratic and quartic effects together explained 99.98% variation for rooting, 99.04% for root number, 99.96% for root length and 97.4% for root biomass. The results also revealed that relatively high C and low N concentrations triggered rooting in cuttings set in spring, while low C and high N in cuttings limited rooting in cuttings set in winter. It is recommended to treat the cuttings with 800 mg L−1 IBA and set the cuttings derived from mature trees in spring, while juvenile stock in both spring and rainy seasons for successful rooting. It is possible to commercially propagate P. pinnata by cuttings with success ranging between 60%–80%, if these recommendations are followed, and thus help in establishment of clonal plantations of the species for bio-diesel production in India .

Gyanaranjan Sahoo

Papers

A comprehensive review of characterization, pretreatment and its applications on different lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production

Forest Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity

Multifunctional agroforestry systems in India for livelihoods.

Effect of seed source, light, and nitrogen levels on biomass and nutrient allocation pattern in seedlings of Pongamia pinnata

Propagation of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre: Effect of auxins, age, season and C/N ratio on rooting of stem cuttings