Evolution of Nervous Control from Primitive Organisms to Man A Symposium organized by the Section on Medical Sciences of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and presented at the New York Meeting on December 29–30, 1956. Edited by Allan D. Bass. Pp. vii + 231. (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science; London: Bailey Bros. and Swinfen, Ltd., 1959.) 52s.

The Central Nervous System

Publisher Summary Birds, in which, in the absence of lactation both sexes can play an equal role in feeding the young, monogamous mating systems are generally desirable, such that sexual dimorphisms in body size are unlikely to develop. This chapter describes the concept of sexual selection, reproduction in the gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee, and man. Sexual selection can be subdivided into two components parts: somatic selection, the factors determining general body size, and genital selection, the factors determining the size of the gonads and external genitalia. While, somatic selection is apparently related to the mating system, and is concerned with successful competition for access to a mate, genital selection is far more complex; although influenced by mating type, it is ultimately a reflection of copulatory frequency. The chapter concludes that the most telling anatomical clues, probably, to the reproductive behavior of man and the Great Apes are the relative body sizes of the male and the female, and the relative sizes of the testis and the ovary. However, it remains to be seen whether the significance of these simple anatomical clues will be confirmed by the examination of a far wider range of species.

Sexual Selection and Its Component Parts, Somatic and Genital Selection, as Illustrated by Man and the Great Apes

The sexual behavior of a group of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) was studied for 13 consecutive months in an attempt to determine whether or not sexual activity occurred year-round, and the importance of sexual attraction to rhesus monkey social organization.

Estrous behavior of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

Publisher Summary This chapter explains astrocytes. Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. They are the most abundant cells of the human brain and account for 30–65% of all glial cells. They perform many functions, including biochemical support of endothelial cells that form the blood–brain barrier, provision of nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.The astrocytes are divided into protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes. The protoplasmic variety, principally encountered in the gray matter, is characterized by a large but variable number of processes that are radially directed. By contrast, the fibrous astrocytes are located mostly in the white matter and at the surfaces of the brain and spinal cord and are considered to have fewer, longer, thinner, and smoother processes than do protoplasmic astrocytes. Both the protoplasmic and fibrous astrocytes have processes-forming expansions that abut against the capillaries; these are termed vascular end-feet.

The Reactive Astrocyte

Apart from molecular data, nearly all the evidence used to study primate relationships comes from hard tissues. Here, we provide details of the first parsimony and Bayesian cladistic analyses of the order Primates based exclusively on muscle data. The most parsimonious tree obtained from the cladistic analysis of 166 characters taken from the head, neck, pectoral and upper limb musculature is fully congruent with the most recent evolutionary molecular tree of Primates. That is, this tree recovers not only the relationships among the major groups of primates, i.e. Strepsirrhini {Tarsiiformes [Platyrrhini (Cercopithecidae, Hominoidea)]}, but it also recovers the relationships within each of these inclusive groups. Of the 301 character state changes occurring in this tree, ca. 30% are non-homoplasic evolutionary transitions; within the 220 changes that are unambiguously optimized in the tree, ca. 15% are reversions. The trees obtained by using characters derived from the muscles of the head and neck are more similar to the most recent evolutionary molecular tree than are the trees obtained by using characters derived from the pectoral and upper limb muscles. It was recently argued that since the Pan/Homo split, chimpanzees accumulated more phenotypic adaptations than humans, but our results indicate that modern humans accumulated more muscle character state changes than chimpanzees, and that both these taxa accumulated more changes than gorillas. This overview of the evolution of the primate head, neck, pectoral and upper limb musculature suggests that the only muscle groups for which modern humans have more muscles than most other extant primates are the muscles of the face, larynx and forearm.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01403.x

Soft-tissue anatomy of the primates: phylogenetic analyses based on the muscles of the head, neck, pectoral region and upper limb, with notes on the evolution of these muscles.

When the male mountain gorilla, Munidi, died on the 2nd of June, 1961, at the Japan Monkey Centre, the authors had the opportunity to dissect its body in co-operation with the staff of the Monkey Centre. The dissection began at 8 p.m. on the 3rd of June, and continued until 4 a.m. of the 4th. At first the skin was removed carefully as a whole. Then the visceral organs were taken out of the abdominal and thoracal cavities, and were fixed in 10% solution of formalin. Small blocks of tissues were fixed separately for the histological examinations. The skull was cut open so as to take out the brain. After several days the materials were transported to Tokyo and studied in detail macroscopically and histologically. When the female of the couple, Emmy, died on the 6th of June, the visceral organs were also taken out and fixed. Some of them were sent to Tokyo together with the materials of Munidi. The histological specimens were embedded in celloidin, sectioned and stained with haematoxylin-eosin as well as with Masson-Goldner's trichrome stain.

Anatomical sketches of visceral organs of the mountain gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla beringei )

Argyrophilic spiral fibers in the centroperipheral boundary zone of the nervous system.

In preceding reports the encephalometric data and fissural pattern of the brains of two mountain gorillas, Munidi ( $ ) and Emmy ( $ ), which died on June 2nd and 6th 1961 respectively at the Japan Monkey Centre, were studied and compared with those of other anthropoids and man (Hosokawa & Kamiya 1963a, b). As mentioned in those reports, some forty gorilla brains were weighed and nearly thirty gorilla brains have been studied gross-anatomically by previous authors. There is however almost no literature on the microscopic structures of the gorilla brain, excepting Tilney et al. (1928) who described internal views of a lowland gorilla brain (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in their voluminous book entitled \"The brain from ape to man.\" The brain stem of the male gorilla, Munidi, was therefore sectioned serially and studied microscopically. So far as the mountain gorilla brain (Gorilla gorilla beringei) is concerned, the present report is probably the first description of the internal structures of the brain stem. For reference the serial sections of the brain stems of man, chimpanzee, orang-utan, gibbon, macaca monkey, baboon, marmoset, lemur, etc. were examined.2) Much literatures on the microscopic structures of the primate brain stem were also referred to. Among the important papers are those of Krause & Klempner (1906), Mussen (1923), Tilney (1927), Tilney et al. (1928), Papez (1929), 6eist (1930), Papez & Aronson (1934), Kodama & Ogawa (1941), Iguchi (1946), Wirz (1950), Futonaka (1951), Ogawa (1951), Olszewski (1952), Ariens Kappers & Huber (1960), Eidelberg & Salidias (1960), Tsubakida (1960), Snider (1961), Snider & Niemer (1961), Gergen & MacLean (1962), Emmers & Akert (1963), K6nig & Klippel (1963), Jones (1964), etc.

The brain of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei)

A Note on the Fibrous Apparatuses Surrounding the Human Eyeball

http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF01793090.pdf

Hiroshi Hosokawa

Papers

Anatomical sketches of visceral organs of the mountain gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla beringei )

Argyrophilic spiral fibers in the centroperipheral boundary zone of the nervous system.

The brain of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei)

A Note on the Fibrous Apparatuses Surrounding the Human Eyeball

The brain of the mountain gorilla(Gorilla gorilla beringei): II. Fissural Pattern