1 Front Matter 2 Executive Summary 3 Part I: Introduction to Reading 4 1. Introduction 5 2. The Process of Learning to Read 6 Part II: Who Are We Talking About? 7 3. Who Has Reading Difficulties? 8 4. Predictors of Success and Failure in Reading 9 Part III: Prevention and Intervention 10 5. Preventing Reading Difficulties Before Kindergarten 11 6. Instructional Strategies for Kindergarten and the Primary Grades 12 7. Organizational Strategies for Kindergarten and the Primary Grades 13 8. Helping Children with Reading Difficulties in Grades 1 to 3 14 Part IV: Knowledge into Action 15 9. The Agents of Change 16 10. Recommendations for Practice and Research 17 References 18 Biographical Sketches 19 Index

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Preventing reading difficulties in young children

Contents: Preface. Part I: R. Barr, Society and Literacy. S.B. Heath, The Sense of Being Literate: Historical and Cross-Cultural Features. P. Foster, A. Purves, Literacy and Society with Particular Reference to the Non-Western World. R.L. Venezky, The Development of Literacy in the Industrialized Nations of the West. J.T. Guthrie, V. Greaney, Literacy Acts. R-M. Weber, Linguistic Diversity and Reading in American Society. J.S. Chall, J.R. Squire, The Publishing Industry and Textbooks. P. Shannon, Politics, Policy, and Reading Research. Part II: M.L. Kamil, Task and Format Variables in Reading Research. A. Graesser, J.M. Golding, D.L. Long, Narrative Representation and Comprehension. S. Bovair, D.E. Kieras, Toward a Model of Acquiring Procedures from Text. C.A. Weaver, III, W. Kintsch, Expository Text. R.J. Tierney, T. Shanahan, Research on the Reading-Writing Relationship: Interactions, Transactions, and Outcomes. R. Calfee, E. Hiebert, Classroom Assessment of Reading. D. Reinking, L. Bridwell-Bowles, Computers in Reading and Writing. R. Waller, Typography and Discourse. Part III: P.B. Mosenthal, Constructs of Reader Process. L.C. Ehri, Development of the Ability to Read Words. K.E. Stanovich, Word Recognition: Changing Perspectives. R. Beach, S. Hynds, Research on Response to Literature. T.P. McNamara, D.L. Miller, J.D. Bransford, Mental Models and Reading Comprehension. M. Daneman, Individual Differences in Reading Skills. K.K. Wixson, M.Y. Lipson, Perspectives on Reading Disability Research. F.R. Vellutino, M.B. Denckla, Cognitive and Neuropsychological Foundations of Word Identification in Poor and Normally Developing Readers. S.G. Paris, B.A. Wasik, J.C. Turner, The Development of Strategic Readers. M. Hegarty, P.A. Carpenter, M.A. Just, Diagrams in the Comprehension of Scientific Texts. L. Mikulecky, R. Drew, Basic Literacy Skills in the Workplace. R.C. Anderson, W.E. Nagy, Word Meanings. Part IV: P.D. Pearson, Literacy and Schooling. E. Sulzby, W. Teale, Emergent Literacy. C. Juel, Beginning Reading. I. Beck, M. McKeown, Conditions of Vocabulary Acquisition. P.D. Pearson, L. Fielding, Comprehension Instruction. L.R. Roehler, G.G. Duffy, Teachers' Instructional Actions. R. Barr, R. Dreeben, Grouping Students for Reading Instruction. J.V. Hoffman, Teacher and School Effects in Learning to Read. D.E. Alvermann, D.W. Moore, Secondary School Reading. P. Johnston, R. Allington, Remediation. Epilogue: P.B. Mosenthal, M.L. Kamil, Understanding Progress in Reading Research.

Handbook of Reading Research

This article presents a model of reading comprehension that accounts for the allocation of eye fixations of college students reading scientific passages. The model deals with processing at the level of words, clauses, and text units. Readers make longer pauses at points where processing loads are greater. Greater loads occur while readers are accessing infrequent words, integrating information from important clauses, and making inferences at the ends of sentences. The model accounts forthe gaze duration on each word of text as a function of the involvement of the various levels of processing. The model is embedded in a theoretical framework capable of accommodating the flexibility of reading.

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/87/4/329.pdf

A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension.

The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition

To account for the large demands on working memory during text comprehension and expert performance, the traditional models of working memory involving temporary storage must be extended to include working memory based on storage in long-term memory. In the proposed theoretical framework cognitive processes are viewed as a sequence of stable states representing end products of processing. In skilled activities, acquired memory skills allow these end products to be stored in long-term memory and kept directly accessible by means of retrieval cues in short-term memory, as proposed by skilled memory theory. These theoretical claims are supported by a review of evidence on memory in text comprehension and expert performance in such domains as mental calculation, medical diagnosis, and chess.

Long-term working memory

On the Efficacy of Reading to Preschoolers

Frequency and Repetition Effects in Lexical Memory.

At 2 1/2 years of age, children who later developed reading disabilities were deficient in the length, syntactic complexity, and pronunciation accuracy of their spoken language, but not in lexical or speech discrimination skills. As 3-year-olds, these children began to show deficits in receptive vocabulary and object-naming abilities, and as 5-year-olds they exhibited weaknesses in object-naming, phonemic awareness, and letter-sound knowledge that have characterized kindergartners who became poor readers in other studies. These late preschool differences were related to subsequent reading status as well as to prior language skills, but early syntactic proficiency nevertheless accounted for some unique variance in grade 2 achievement when differences at age 5 were statistically controlled. The language deficits of dyslexic children were unrelated to maternal reading ability and were not observed in children from dyslexic families who became normal readers. The implications of the results for etiological issues are discussed.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1130834.pdf

Very early language deficits in dyslexic children.

Reading comprehension scores from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests, the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, and the Gray Oral Reading Test were examined in relation to measures of reading, language, and other cognitive skills that have been hypothesized to contribute to comprehension and account for comprehension differences. In a sample of 97 first through tenth graders, the relative contributions of word recognition/decoding and oral language skills to comprehension varied from test to test. The inclusion of reading speed accounted for additional variance, but prediction of comprehension scores was minimally improved by including measures of rapid serial naming, verbal memory, IQ, or attention. The findings suggest that commonly used tests of reading comprehension, such as the three we compared, may not tap the same array of cognitive processes. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Prediction of Reading Comprehension: Relative Contributions of Word Recognition, Language Proficiency, and Other Cognitive Skills Can Depend on How Comprehension Is Measured.

A new method for evaluating the grammatical complexity of preschool natural language corpora is introduced. In the Index of Productive Syntax, occurrences of 56 syntactic and morphological forms are counted, yielding a total score and subscores for noun phrases, verb phrases, questions/negations, and sentence structures. Development of the index and analyses of its reliability and age-sensitivity when applied to language samples of 2- to 4-year-olds are described. Some advantages and limitations of the index as a research and clinical instrument are also discussed.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0142716400008262

Hollis S. Scarborough

Papers

On the Efficacy of Reading to Preschoolers

Frequency and Repetition Effects in Lexical Memory.

Very early language deficits in dyslexic children.

Prediction of Reading Comprehension: Relative Contributions of Word Recognition, Language Proficiency, and Other Cognitive Skills Can Depend on How Comprehension Is Measured.

Index of Productive Syntax.