Marine aquaculture presents an opportunity for increasing seafood production in the face of growing demand for marine protein and limited scope for expanding wild fishery harvests. However, the global capacity for increased aquaculture production from the ocean and the relative productivity potential across countries are unknown. Here, we map the biological production potential for marine aquaculture across the globe using an innovative approach that draws from physiology, allometry and growth theory. Even after applying substantial constraints based on existing ocean uses and limitations, we find vast areas in nearly every coastal country that are suitable for aquaculture. The development potential far exceeds the space required to meet foreseeable seafood demand; indeed, the current total landings of all wild-capture fisheries could be produced using less than 0.015% of the global ocean area. This analysis demonstrates that suitable space is unlikely to limit marine aquaculture development and highlights the role that other factors, such as economics and governance, play in shaping growth trajectories. We suggest that the vast amount of space suitable for marine aquaculture presents an opportunity for countries to develop aquaculture in a way that aligns with their economic, environmental and social objectives.

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Mapping the global potential for marine aquaculture

Marine aquaculture is expanding into deeper offshore environments in response to growing consumer demand for seafood, improved technology, and limited potential to increase wild fisheries catches. Sustainable development of aquaculture will require quantification and minimization of its impacts on other ocean-based activities and the environment through scientifically informed spatial planning. However, the scientific literature currently provides limited direct guidance for such planning. Here, we employ an ecological lens and synthesize a broad multidisciplinary literature to provide insight into the interactions between offshore aquaculture and the surrounding environment across a spectrum of spatial scales. While important information gaps remain, we find that there is sufficient research for informed decisions about the effects of aquaculture siting to achieve a sustainable offshore aquaculture industry that complements other uses of the marine environment.

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Offshore aquaculture: Spatial planning principles for sustainable development.

Marine spatial planning (MSP) seeks to reduce conflicts and environmental impacts, and promote sustainable use of marine ecosystems. Existing MSP approaches have successfully determined how to achieve target levels of ocean area for particular uses while minimizing costs and impacts, but they do not provide a framework that derives analytical solutions in order to co-ordinate siting of multiple uses while balancing the effects of planning on each sector in the system. We develop such a framework for guiding offshore aquaculture (bivalve, finfish, and kelp farming) development in relation to existing sectors and environmental concerns (wild-capture fisheries, viewshed quality, benthic pollution, and disease spread) in California, USA. We identify > 250,000 MSP solutions that generate significant seafood supply and billions of dollars in revenue with minimal impacts (often < 1%) on existing sectors and the environment. We filter solutions to identify candidate locations for high-value, low-impact aquaculture development. Finally, we confirm the expectation of substantial value of our framework over conventional planning focused on maximizing individual objectives. Marine spatial planning is used to co-ordinate multiple ocean uses, and is frequently informed by tradeoffs and composite metrics. Here, Lester et al. introduce an approach that plans for multiple uses simultaneously whilst balancing individual objectives, using a case study of aquaculture development in California.

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Marine spatial planning makes room for offshore aquaculture in crowded coastal waters.

Sustainability certification has become an increasingly important feature in aquaculture production, leading to a multitude of schemes with various criteria. However, the large number of schemes and the complexity of the standards creates confusion with respect to which sustainability objectives are targeted. As a result, what is meant by ‘sustainability’ is unclear. In this paper, we examine the operationalisation of the concept from the vantage point of the certifying authorities, who devise standards and grant or withhold certification of compliance. We map the criteria of eight widely-used certification schemes using the four domains of the Wheel of Sustainability, a reference model designed to encompass a comprehensive understanding of sustainability. We show that, overall, the sustainability certifications have an overwhelming focus on environmental and governance indicators, and only display scattered attempts at addressing cultural and economic issues. The strong focus on governance indicators is, to a large degree, due to their role in implementing and legitimising the environmental indicators. The strong bias implies that these certification schemes predominantly focus on the environmental domain and do not address sustainability as a whole, nor do they complement each other. Sustainability is by definition and by necessity a comprehensive concept, but if the cultural and economic issues are to be addressed in aquaculture, the scope of certification schemes must be expanded. The Wheel of Sustainability can serve as a valid lexicon and asset to guide such efforts.

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The operationalisation of sustainability: Sustainable aquaculture production as defined by certification schemes

Over a decade ago, the ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) emerged from discussions between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and international aquaculture experts on how to move aquaculture development towards greater sustainability. The purpose of this review is to critically examine the use and mainstreaming of the EAA in aquaculture development to date and consider its possible evolution in the next decade. We systematically searched citations of key EAA publications in the academic and related literature for the period 2007–2016 and analysed all relevant FAO publications and project documents. We assessed the lessons learnt from the past decade of EAA experiences, the opportunities the EAA has created and the links between the EAA and the new development agenda. Our review suggests that mainstreaming the EAA in planning processes has raised awareness of the usefulness of holistic and participatory approaches in aquaculture and helped to steer the sector towards greater sustainability. However, the approach has had varying degrees of resonance and uptake with different user groups. The emphasis on spatial planning that has developed as part of the EAA implementation efforts, and close links between the EAA and initiatives such as ‘blue growth’, constitute significant opportunities for the future of the approach, although its ability to tackle increasingly complex governance issues may be limited. Thus, it is now opportune to reconsider the EAA's raison d’etre, taking into account ongoing developments within and outside the aquaculture sector.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/raq.12242

The ecosystem approach to aquaculture 10 years on – a critical review and consideration of its future role in blue growth

Aquaculture is an increasingly important food-producing sector, providing protein for human consumption. However, marine aquaculture often struggles for space due to the crowded nature of human activities in many marine coastal areas, and because of limited attention from spatial planning managers. Here, we assess the need for coastal spatial planning, emphasis- ing the establishment of suitable areas for the development of marine aquaculture, termed Allo- cated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs), in which aquaculture has secured use and priority over other activities, and where potential adverse environmental impacts and negative interactions with other users are minimised or avoided. We review existing examples of marine aquaculture spatial development worldwide and discuss the proper use of site selection in relation to different legal and regulatory requirements. National or regional authorities in charge of coastal zone manage- ment should carry out spatial planning defining optimal sites for aquaculture to promote develop- ment of sustainable marine aquaculture and avoid conflict with other users, following a participa- tory approach and adhering to the principles of ecosystem-based management.

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Aquaculture’s struggle for space: the need for coastal spatial planning and the potential benefits of Allocated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs) to avoid conflict and promote sustainability

Indicators for sustainable aquaculture in Mediterranean and Black Sea countries: guide for the use of indicators to monitor sustainable development of aquaculture

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Allocated zones for aquaculture : a guide for the establishment of coastal zones dedicated to aquaculture in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

Aquaculture sustainability builds upon its environmental, economic, sociological and governance dimensions and although the recent global interest in aquaculture sustainability has arisen due to the rapid expansion of the sector, lack of consensus and diverging conflicts among stakeholders have often compromised and lessen the achievement of real actions to ensure the sustainable development of aquaculture. The use of indicators in aquaculture is considered one of the most appropriate tools to monitor and assess the growth of sustainable aquaculture activities. In this study, we present the main outcomes of a broad project implemented by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) called “Indicators for the sustainable development of aquaculture and guidelines for their use in the Mediterranean” (2008-2015), with emphasis on the relevance of the process that – in the areas of several Mediterranean riparian countries – has led to the selection and identification of a pool of indicators for monitoring the sustainable aquaculture development from an initial regional reference system of 156 indicators. The development of case studies at the local level based on PCI approach (Principles-Criteria- Indicators) has allowed among other things to identify the main steps that were necessary to build local consensus on the selection, implementation and performance assessment of aquaculture indicators, with the involvement of key stakeholders. In the case studies, the 156 selected indicators and related criteria were ranked by the local stakeholders based on their perception and understanding the local priorities at the time of the case studies to achieve the sustainable development of aquaculture in each area. Based on the importance of the criteria by the stakeholders, we studied the order of relevance assigned to the indicators for one of each of the four pillar of aquaculture sustainability (governance, social, economic and environmental). Several direct and indirect positive effects deriving from the implementation of aquaculture indicators are presented. Furthermore, the work carried out highlighted also that the identification and use of indicators and criteria applied is an evolving process reflecting the dynamic status of aquaculture development and the perception of its sustainability at the time in which the indicators are identified. The work was carried out consistently with the participatory approach principles and focusing on the criteria associated to the social acceptability of aquaculture considered an integral part of sustainability.

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Selecting priorities, indicators and criteria to monitor sustainable aquaculture development lessons learned from selected case studies in the Mediterranean

Houssam Hamza

Papers

Aquaculture’s struggle for space: the need for coastal spatial planning and the potential benefits of Allocated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs) to avoid conflict and promote sustainability

Indicators for sustainable aquaculture in Mediterranean and Black Sea countries: guide for the use of indicators to monitor sustainable development of aquaculture

Allocated zones for aquaculture : a guide for the establishment of coastal zones dedicated to aquaculture in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

Selecting priorities, indicators and criteria to monitor sustainable aquaculture development lessons learned from selected case studies in the Mediterranean