Human communities in the Trans-Himalayan region depend on the dynamics of the agro-pastoral system for survival. Humans, livestock and wild predators share common resources in the region, and this leads to human–wildlife interactions that have the potential to threaten the continued viability of this fragile ecosystem and impact the local economy. This study explored the interaction between livestock and predators in the upper Mustang region of Nepal in terms of economic and ecological impacts. A total of 1,347 km2 of pasture land were grazed by 30,217 livestock belonging to local people from six village development committees. It was found that the seasonal movement patterns of livestock, from higher to lower elevations (closer to villages), coincided with elevation movements of wild ungulate prey and snow leopards into this smaller land area. The number of livestock reported to have been killed by predators during the study period was 706, 75 % of which was attributed to snow leopards. An estimated US$ 44,213 was lost between October 2009 and June 2011 due to livestock predation. These losses of livestock to snow leopards and other carnivores provoked retaliatory killings by villagers, and this in turn may significantly affect the viability of predator populations in this region. We suggest four approaches to mitigate human–carnivore conflict in the region: (a) introduce a livestock insurance policy, (b) promote the use of predator-proof livestock corrals and sheds, (c) involve local people in alternative income generating activities, and (d) increase conservation education in these regions.

Human–carnivore conflict: ecological and economical sustainability of predation on livestock by snow leopard and other carnivores in the Himalaya

Urban animals and their political ecologies constitute an arena of geographical scholarship that has intensified in recent years. Yet, little headway has been made in terms of understanding how sentient creatures inhabit and negotiate dynamic, metabolic environments. Focusing on urban macaques in Indian cities, the paper develops a conversation between geography and ethology. Firstly, the conversation provides insights into what urbanisation might entail for animals. Secondly, it assays ways in which non-human knowledges enable rethinking what expertise counts in urban governance. Thirdly, the conversation foregrounds other spatial topologies of the urban that become evident when animals’ lifeworlds are taken into account. The paper advances efforts to animate urban political ecology in registers yet inattentive to non-human lifeworlds. It concludes by reflecting upon the purchase of such etho-geographical conversations generate for political ecologies of urbanisation.

Animating the urban: an ethological and geographical conversation

Human-rhesus macaque conflict due to crop raiding is a major problem affecting northern India, particularly the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Management techniques are challenging both due to the commensal nature of the macaque as well as the culturally significant status of the species in India. Studies on wildlife crop raiding indicate that people’s reactions to crop raiding are strongly influenced by their attitudes towards the species involved and that insights into these perceptions are critical to work towards conflict-resolution measures. Hence, we investigated the attitudes and perceptions of farmers in Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh, towards the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and the impact of macaque crop raiding on their lives. We interviewed 54 farmer-families from five villages in Bilaspur and collected data on the extent of crop damage caused by wildlife species, farmers’ attitudes towards the rhesus macaque and conflict-mitigation strategies as suggested by the farmers. The results of our study indicate that farmers hold ambivalent attitudes towards the rhesus macaque and mixed opinions regarding its management.

A god becomes a pest? Human-rhesus macaque interactions in Himachal Pradesh, northern India

Conflict between humans and wild animals is one of the greatest challenges to biodiversity conservation globally. Of all primates, macaques are particularly successful at exploiting human-modified environments, both rural and urban, and in some contexts develop commensal relationships with humans. However, this frequent association with people inevitably leads to conflicts. In this chapter we review the human–macaque conflict situation in Asia and North Africa and, using specific case studies, explore three main areas of interaction that can lead to conflict: rural crop-damage, tourism sites and urban contexts. With ever-expanding human populations, changing socio-economic conditions and shifting cultural attitudes, the future of human–macaque relationships is likely to be an uneasy one. The rise in human–macaque conflicts throughout the range of Macaca calls for effective mitigation strategies to facilitate coexistence. We discuss conflict management approaches that (1) aim to alter the behaviour of macaques and/or people; and (2) seek to control the size, demography or distribution of macaque populations. Macaque conservation requires a multiple management strategy approach, depending on the specific context. Conservation strategies should focus on promotion of tolerant cultural attitudes in addition to reduction of negative interactions in order to ensure long-term survival of macaque populations.

Managing Humans, Managing Macaques: Human–Macaque Conflict in Asia and Africa

Robbing and bartering (RB) is a behavioral practice anecdotally reported in free-ranging commensal macaques It usually occurs in two steps: after taking inedible objects (eg, glasses) from humans, the macaques appear to use them as tokens, returning them to humans in exchange for food While extensively studied in captivity, our research is the first to investigate the object/food exchange between humans and primates in a natural setting During a 4-month study in 2010, we used both focal and event sampling to record 201 RB events in a population of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), including four neighboring groups ranging freely around Uluwatu Temple, Bali (Indonesia) In each group, we documented the RB frequency, prevalence and outcome, and tested the underpinning anthropogenic and demographic determinants In line with the environmental opportunity hypothesis, we found a positive qualitative relation at the group level between time spent in tourist zones and RB frequency or prevalence For two of the four groups, RB events were significantly more frequent when humans were more present in the environment We also found qualitative partial support for the male-biased sex ratio hypothesis [ie, RB was more frequent and prevalent in groups with higher ratios of (sub)adult males], whereas the group density hypothesis was not supported This preliminary study showed that RB is a spontaneous, customary (in some groups), and enduring population-specific practice characterized by intergroup variation in Balinese macaques As such, RB is a candidate for a new behavioral tradition in this species

Intergroup variation in robbing and bartering by long-tailed macaques at Uluwatu Temple (Bali, Indonesia).

Rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta and people have coexisted for many years in Vrindaban in Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh, India. The monkeys are highly valued both by locals and pilgrims to the area, in part because of their quasi sacred status, but during the last two decades the increasing human and monkey populations of the township have led to severe human-monkey conflict and a decrease in people's respect for the monkeys. To ease this situation one of the world's largest ever translocations of monkeys was undertaken. In 1995, 30 groups of rhesus monkeys, comprising an estimated 1,338 individuals, were recorded in Vrindaban. Of these, 12 groups, a total of 600 individuals, were translocated in January 1997 to eight sites in seminatural forested areas within the same District. A post-translocation study indicated that the translocated monkeys were settled and appeared to be exhibiting normal behaviour. This study indicates that translocation of commensal monkeys to forested areas can be a successful technique for their rehabilitation.

/pdf/a-successful-mass-translocation-of-commensal-rhesus-monkeys-3zd6vlj5ih.pdf

Iqbal Malik

Papers

A successful mass translocation of commensal rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta in Vrindaban, India

Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) problems in India and their management.

Translocation of Rhesus Macaques from Airforce Station, Gurgaon (Haryana) To the Natural Forest of Firozpur jhirka, Haryana, India