Researchers have explored the benefits and applications of virtual reality (VR) in different scenarios. VR possesses much potential and its application in education has seen much research interest lately. However, little systematic work currently exists on how researchers have applied immersive VR for higher education purposes that considers the usage of both high-end and budget head-mounted displays (HMDs). Hence, we propose using systematic mapping to identify design elements of existing research dedicated to the application of VR in higher education. The reviewed articles were acquired by extracting key information from documents indexed in four scientific digital libraries, which were filtered systematically using exclusion, inclusion, semi-automatic, and manual methods. Our review emphasizes three key points: the current domain structure in terms of the learning contents, the VR design elements, and the learning theories, as a foundation for successful VR-based learning. The mapping was conducted between application domains and learning contents and between design elements and learning contents. Our analysis has uncovered several gaps in the application of VR in the higher education sphere—for instance, learning theories were not often considered in VR application development to assist and guide toward learning outcomes. Furthermore, the evaluation of educational VR applications has primarily focused on usability of the VR apps instead of learning outcomes and immersive VR has mostly been a part of experimental and development work rather than being applied regularly in actual teaching. Nevertheless, VR seems to be a promising sphere as this study identifies 18 application domains, indicating a better reception of this technology in many disciplines. The identified gaps point toward unexplored regions of VR design for education, which could motivate future work in the field.

A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda

Metaverse beyond the hype: Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agenda for research, practice and policy

The adoption of immersive virtual reality (I-VR) as a pedagogical method in education has challenged the conceptual definition of what constitutes a learning environment. High fidelity graphics and immersive content using head-mounted-displays (HMD) have allowed students to explore complex subjects in a way that traditional teaching methods cannot. Despite this, research focusing on learning outcomes, intervention characteristics, and assessment measures associated with I-VR use has been sparse. To explore this, the current systematic review examined experimental studies published since 2013, where quantitative learning outcomes using HMD based I-VR were compared with less immersive pedagogical methods such as desktop computers and slideshows. A literature search yielded 29 publications that were deemed suitable for inclusion. Included papers were quality assessed using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI). Most studies found a significant advantage of utilising I-VR in education, whilst a smaller number found no significant differences in attainment level regardless of whether I-VR or non-immersive methods were utilised. Only two studies found clear detrimental effects of using I-VR. However, most studies used short interventions, did not examine information retention, and were focused mainly on the teaching of scientific topics such as biology or physics. In addition, the MERSQI showed that the methods used to evaluate learning outcomes are often inadequate and this may affect the interpretation of I-VR’s utility. The review highlights that a rigorous methodological approach through the identification of appropriate assessment measures, intervention characteristics, and learning outcomes is essential to understanding the potential of I-VR as a pedagogical method.

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Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: a systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design

There has been a surge in interest and implementation of immersive virtual reality (IVR)-based lessons in education and training recently, which has resulted in many studies on the topic. There are recent reviews which summarize this research, but little work has been done that synthesizes the existing findings into a theoretical framework. The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) synthesizes existing immersive educational research to describe the process of learning in IVR. The general theoretical framework of the model suggests that instructional methods which are based on evidence from research with less immersive media generalize to learning in IVR. However, the CAMIL builds on evidence that media interacts with method. That is, certain methods which facilitate the affordances of IVR are specifically relevant in this medium. The CAMIL identifies presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of learning in IVR, and describes how immersion, control factors, and representational fidelity facilitate these affordances. The model describes six affective and cognitive factors that can lead to IVR-based learning outcomes including interest, motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load, and self-regulation. The model also describes how these factors lead to factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge acquisition and knowledge transfer. Implications for future research and instructional design are proposed.

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The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality

With the availability of low-cost high-quality head-mounted displays (HMDs) since 2013, there is a growing body of literature investigating the impact of immersive virtual reality (IVR) technology on education. This meta-analysis aims to synthesize the findings on the overall effects of IVR using HMDs compared to less immersive desktop virtual reality (DVR) and other traditional means of instruction. A systematic search was carried out on the literature published between 2013 and 2019. Thirty-five randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-experimental studies were identified. We conducted an analysis using the random effects model (REM) to calculate the pooled effect size. The studies were also coded to examine the moderating effects of their characteristics, such as learner stage, learning domain, learning application type, testing format, control group treatment and learning duration, on the outcome measure. The results showed that IVR using HMDs is more effective than non-immersive learning approaches with a small effect size (ES = 0.24). The key findings of the moderator analysis were that HMDs have a greater impact (a) on K-12 learners; (b) in the fields of science education and specific abilities development; (c) when offering simulation or virtual world representations; and (d) when compared with lectures or real-world practices. The meta-analysis also suggested that HMDs can improve both knowledge and skill development, and maintain the learning effect over time.

Effectiveness of Immersive Virtual Reality Using Head-Mounted Displays on Learning Performance: A Meta-Analysis.

Human resource professionals increasingly enhance their assessment tools with game elements—a process typically referred to as “gamification”—to make them more interesting and engaging for candidates, and they design and use “serious games” that can support skill assessment and development. However, commercial, off-the-shelf video games are not or are only rarely used to screen or test candidates, even though there is increasing evidence that they are indicative of various skills that are professionally valuable. Using the strategy game Civilization, this proof-of-concept study explores if strategy video games are indicative of managerial skills and, if so, of what managerial skills. Under controlled laboratory conditions, we asked forty business students to play the Civilization game and to participate in a series of assessment exercises. We find that students who had high scores in the game had better skills related to problem-solving and organizing and planning than the students who had low scores. In addition, a preliminary analysis of in-game data, including players’ interactions and chat messages, suggests that strategy games such as Civilization may be used for more precise and holistic “stealth assessments,” including personality assessments.

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Good gamers, good managers? A proof-of-concept study with Sid Meier's Civilization

Virtual Reality in Higher Education: Preliminary Results from a Design-Science-Research Project

Civilization is a popular series of turn-based strategy video games. The game is broad, so it confronts players with high complexity. Dealing with this complexity requires good analytical skills, but interpersonal skills are likewise important. These and similar skills are also relevant in the job market, especially for managerial positions, so the question arises whether Civilization can predict business managers’ performance. To explore this possibility, we conducted a series of multiplayer games with forty business students. While we cannot yet present data related to their job performance, this research-inprogress paper provides first evidence of a significant relationship between game performance and academic performance. Our future research will explore the participants’ analytical and interpersonal skills and how these skills are related to success in the game in order to show whether and how well strategy video games may also predict job performance and, as such, support personnel evaluation and selection.

Isabell Wohlgenannt

Papers

A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda

Good gamers, good managers? A proof-of-concept study with Sid Meier's Civilization

Virtual Reality in Higher Education: Preliminary Results from a Design-Science-Research Project

Do Good Gamers Make Good Students? Sid Meier's Civilization and Performance Prediction

Do Good Gamers Make Good Students? Sid Meier's Civilization and Performance Prediction Research-in-Progress