The quality of powder used in powder bed-based additive manufacturing plays a key role concerning process performance and end part properties. Even though this is a generally accepted fact, there is still a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the powder property–part property relationship. However, numerous investigations focusing on selected powder properties and their corresponding influence on process aspects or final part properties have been published in recent years. Still, generalized statements on powder requirements for a defined process performance are not available. This can be attributed to the fact that the community has not yet come to an agreement which characterization techniques are most suitable for powder characterization in the additive manufacturing context and in most cases only selected aspects have been investigated for special powder materials. The aim of this review is to assess these building blocks of knowledge and to provide an overview on the current state of the art.

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Powders for powder bed fusion: a review

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/721903.pdf

A review of bulk powder caking

Existing powder feedstock metrics for powder bed fusion (PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) are related to packing efficiency and flowability, and newer techniques, such as powder rheometry and dynamic avalanche testing, have received recent attention in the literature. To date, however, no powder characterization technique is able to predict the spreadability of AM feedstock. In fact, no such spreadability metrics exist. This study endeavored to establish viable powder spreadability metrics through the development of a spreadability testing rig that emulates the recoating conditions present in commercial PBF AM systems. As no metrics for spreadability currently exist, four potential metrics were evaluated in a 3∙23 split plot experimental design. These four metrics were: (1) the percentage of the build plate covered by spread powder, (2) the rate of powder deposition, (3) the average avalanching angle of the powder, and (4) the rate of change of the avalanching angle. Three samples of gas atomized, Al-10Si-0.5 Mg PBF powder representing differing degrees of quality were used as the levels of the powder quality input variable. As no powder quality metrics have been shown to be indicative of powder spreadability in PBF, various bulk powder characteristics were used as the powder quality indicator during ANOVA. Of the four metrics tested, the average avalanching angle, while statistically dependent of the powders angle of repose, showed poor correlation with experimental data. The remaining three metrics, however, were all found to have a statistically significant dependence on the angle of repose. Increasing the angle of repose resulted in significantly worse powder spreading, i.e. poor build plate coverage and powder clumping, as measured by the viable spreading metrics. Other processing parameters, such as the recoating speed and the recoater blade material were shown to also influence the spread quality.

On the development of powder spreadability metrics and feedstock requirements for powder bed fusion additive manufacturing

The paper entitled “Analysis of the Dynamics of the FT4 Powder Rheometer” contains calculation errors that lead to an underestimate of deviatoric stresses by a factor of ten and average compressive stresses by a factor of approximately three. The trends remain unchanged from those shown in the paper, with compressive stress and deviatoric stress both increasing approximately linearly with blade penetration depth. Here, the corrected values of compressive and deviatoric stress are given.

Analysis of the Dynamics of the FT4 Powder Rheometer (vol 285, pg 123, 2015)

Background Caking is a recurrent problem in various industries, whether it occurs during the production, storage or transport of powders. Caked powder results in longer processing times and decreased product quality, leading to significant economic loss. Several caking mechanisms have been described in the literature. However, they are often difficult to take into account in an industrial context, given the many parameters which influence the overall caking phenomenon. Scope and approach This review describes the three relevant caking mechanisms for food powders in general. Focussing on predominantly crystalline lactose powder, we discuss how each of these mechanisms can explain caking and be prevented in the industrial context. The second part of this paper presents a critical review of the methods used to characterise caking to date. Key findings and conclusions The presence of amorphous material and other impurities must be assessed in crystalline lactose powders, as they can trigger amorphous and humidity caking. Particle size distribution is another key parameter requiring control as it can encourage caking through enhancement of particle interactions. In general, preventing caking in food powders can only be achieved by a thorough understanding of the production process and storage conditions. Moreover, the characterisation of caking remains a challenge as most methods published in the literature do not fit the needs of the food industry. The real demand is for a reliable method to predict caking which would be rapid and easy enough to be applied to each batch for quality control.

Caking of lactose: A critical review

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/505518.pdf

J Clayton

Papers

Analysis of the dynamics of the FT4 powder rheometer

Analysis of the Dynamics of the FT4 Powder Rheometer (vol 285, pg 123, 2015)

Correction to “Analysis of the Dynamics of the FT4 Powder Rheometer” [Powder Technol. 285 (2015) 123–127]

Stress distribution in a powder column under uniaxial compression

Developing a metal powder specification for laser metal deposition