抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

ion. The oxidative addition mechanism was originally proposed22i because of the lack of a strong rate dependence on polar factors and on the acidity of the medium. Later, however, the electrophilic substitution mechanism also was proposed. Recently, the oxidative addition mechanism was confirmed by investigations into the decomposition and protonolysis of alkylplatinum complexes, which are the reverse of alkane activation. There are two routes which operate in the decomposition of the dimethylplatinum(IV) complex Cs2Pt(CH3)2Cl4. The first route leads to chloride-induced reductive elimination and produces methyl chloride and methane. The second route leads to the formation of ethane. There is strong kinetic evidence that the ethane is produced by the decomposition of an ethylhydridoplatinum(IV) complex formed from the initial dimethylplatinum(IV) complex. In D2O-DCl, the ethane which is formed contains several D atoms and has practically the same multiple exchange parameter and distribution as does an ethane which has undergone platinum(II)-catalyzed H-D exchange with D2O. Moreover, ethyl chloride is formed competitively with H-D exchange in the presence of platinum(IV). From the principle of microscopic reversibility it follows that the same ethylhydridoplatinum(IV) complex is the intermediate in the reaction of ethane with platinum(II). Important results were obtained by Labinger and Bercaw62c in the investigation of the protonolysis mechanism of several alkylplatinum(II) complexes at low temperatures. These reactions are important because they could model the microscopic reverse of C-H activation by platinum(II) complexes. Alkylhydridoplatinum(IV) complexes were observed as intermediates in certain cases, such as when the complex (tmeda)Pt(CH2Ph)Cl or (tmeda)PtMe2 (tmeda ) N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylenediamine) was treated with HCl in CD2Cl2 or CD3OD, respectively. In some cases H-D exchange took place between the methyl groups on platinum and the, CD3OD prior to methane loss. On the basis of the kinetic results, a common mechanism was proposed to operate in all the reactions: (1) protonation of Pt(II) to generate an alkylhydridoplatinum(IV) intermediate, (2) dissociation of solvent or chloride to generate a cationic, fivecoordinate platinum(IV) species, (3) reductive C-H bond formation, producing a platinum(II) alkane σ-complex, and (4) loss of the alkane either through an associative or dissociative substitution pathway. These results implicate the presence of both alkane σ-complexes and alkylhydridoplatinum(IV) complexes as intermediates in the Pt(II)-induced C-H activation reactions. Thus, the first step in the alkane activation reaction is formation of a σ-complex with the alkane, which then undergoes oxidative addition to produce an alkylhydrido complex. Reversible interconversion of these intermediates, together with reversible deprotonation of the alkylhydridoplatinum(IV) complexes, leads to multiple H-D exchange

Activation of c-h bonds by metal complexes

▪ Abstract Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is an important mechanism for charge transfer in a wide variety of systems including biology- and materials-oriented venues. We review several are...

/pdf/proton-coupled-electron-transfer-3oyvp0w9qd.pdf

Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer

Dioxygen activation at mononuclear nonheme iron active sites: enzymes, models, and intermediates.

The applications of copper (Cu) and Cu-based nanoparticles, which are based on the earth-abundant and inexpensive copper metal, have generated a great deal of interest in recent years, especially in the field of catalysis. The possible modification of the chemical and physical properties of these nanoparticles using different synthetic strategies and conditions and/or via postsynthetic chemical treatments has been largely responsible for the rapid growth of interest in these nanomaterials and their applications in catalysis. In addition, the design and development of novel support and/or multimetallic systems (e.g., alloys, etc.) has also made significant contributions to the field. In this comprehensive review, we report different synthetic approaches to Cu and Cu-based nanoparticles (metallic copper, copper oxides, and hybrid copper nanostructures) and copper nanoparticles immobilized into or supported on various support materials (SiO2, magnetic support materials, etc.), along with their applications i...

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00482

Cu and Cu-Based Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Applications in Catalysis.

Many, if not most, redox reactions are coupled to proton transfers. This includes most common sources of chemical potential energy, from the bioenergetic processes that power cells to the fossil fuel combustion that powers cars. These proton-coupled electron transfer or PCET processes may involve multiple electrons and multiple protons, as in the 4 e–, 4 H+ reduction of dioxygen (O2) to water (eq 1), or can involve one electron and one proton such as the formation of tyrosyl radicals from tyrosine residues (TyrOH) in enzymatic catalytic cycles (eq 2). In addition, many multi-electron, multi-proton processes proceed in one-electron and one-proton steps. Organic reactions that proceed in one-electron steps involve radical intermediates, which play critical roles in a wide range of chemical, biological, and industrial processes. This broad and diverse class of PCET reactions are central to a great many chemical and biochemical processes, from biological catalysis and energy transduction, to bulk industrial chemical processes, to new approaches to solar energy conversion. PCET is therefore of broad and increasing interest, as illustrated by this issue and a number of other recent reviews.

/pdf/thermochemistry-of-proton-coupled-electron-transfer-reagents-v04esq6den.pdf

Thermochemistry of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reagents and its Implications

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions involve the concerted transfer of an electron and a proton. Such reactions play an important role in many areas of chemistry and biology. Concerted PCET is thermochemically more favorable than the first step in competing consecutive processes involving stepwise electron transfer (ET) and proton transfer (PT), often by >=1 eV. PCET reactions of the form X-H + Y X + H-Y can be termed hydrogen atom transfer (HAT). Another PCET class involves outersphere electron transfer concerted with deprotonation by another reagent, Y+ + XH-B Y + X-HB+. Many PCET/HAT rate constants are predicted well by the Marcus cross relation. The cross-relation calculation uses rate constants for self-exchange reactions to provide information on intrinsic barriers. Intrinsic barriers for PCET can be comparable to or larger than those for ET. These properties are discussed in light of recent theoretical treatments of PCET.

Proton-coupled electron transfer: a reaction chemist's view.

The oxidation of water to O(2) is a key challenge in the production of chemical fuels from electricity. Although several catalysts have been developed for this reaction, substantial challenges remain towards the ultimate goal of an efficient, inexpensive and robust electrocatalyst. Reported here is the first copper-based catalyst for electrolytic water oxidation. Copper-bipyridine-hydroxo complexes rapidly form in situ from simple commercially available copper salts and bipyridine at high pH. Cyclic voltammetry of these solutions at pH 11.8-13.3 shows large, irreversible currents, indicative of catalysis. The production of O(2) is demonstrated both electrochemically and with a fluorescence probe. Catalysis occurs at about 750 mV overpotential. Electrochemical, electron paramagnetic resonance and other studies indicate that the catalyst is a soluble molecular species, that the dominant species in the catalytically active solutions is (2,2'-bipyridine)Cu(OH)(2) and that this is among the most rapid homogeneous water-oxidation catalysts, with a turnover frequency of ~100 s(-1).

A soluble copper–bipyridine water-oxidation electrocatalyst

Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), a key step in many chemical, environmental, and biological processes, is one of the fundamental chemical reactions: A−H + B → A + H−B. Traditional HAT involves p-block radicals such as tert-BuO• abstracting H• from organic molecules. More recently, the recognition that transition metal species undergo HAT has led to a broader perspective, with HAT viewed as a type of proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET). When transition metal complexes oxidize substrates by removing H• (e− + H+), typically the electron transfers to the metal and the proton to a ligand. Examples with iron-imidazolinate, vanadium-oxo, and many other complexes are discussed. Although these complexes may not “look like” main group radicals, they have the same pattern of reactivity. For instance, their HAT rate constants parallel the A−H bond strengths within a series of similar reactions. Like main group radicals, they abstract H• much faster from O−H bonds than from C−H bonds of the same strength, showing tha...

James M. Mayer

Papers

Thermochemistry of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reagents and its Implications

Proton-coupled electron transfer: a reaction chemist's view.

A soluble copper–bipyridine water-oxidation electrocatalyst

Understanding Hydrogen Atom Transfer: From Bond Strengths to Marcus Theory

Hydrogen atom abstraction by metal-oxo complexes : understanding the analogy with organic radical reactions