People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.

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Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning

Preface Chapter 1 The challenge Chapter 2 The nature of the evidence: A synthesis of meta-analyses Chapter 3 The argument: Visible teaching and visible learning Chapter 4: The contributions from the student Chapter 5 The contributions from the home Chapter 6 The contributions from the school Chapter 7 The contributions from the teacher Chapter 8 The contributions from the curricula Chapter 9 The contributions from teaching approaches - I Chapter 10 The contributions from teaching approaches - II Chapter 11: Bringing it all together Appendix A: The 800 meta-analyses Appendix B: The meta-analyses by rank order References

Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement

This article examines the classroom learning environment in relation to achievement goal theory of motivation. Classroom structures are described in terms of how they make different types of achievement goals salient and as a consequence elicit qualitatively different patterns of motivation. Task, evaluation and recognition, and authority dimensions of classrooms are presented as examples of structures that can influence children's orientation toward different achievement goals. Central to the thesis of this article is a perspective that argues for an identification of classroom structures that can contribute to a mastery orientation, a systematic analysis of these structures, and a determination of how these structures relate to each other

Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation.

Miller (1956) summarized evidence that people can remember about seven chunks in short-term memory (STM) tasks. How- ever, that number was meant more as a rough estimate and a rhetorical device than as a real capacity limit. Others have since suggested that there is a more precise capacity limit, but that it is only three to five chunks. The present target article brings together a wide vari- ety of data on capacity limits suggesting that the smaller capacity limit is real. Capacity limits will be useful in analyses of information processing only if the boundary conditions for observing them can be carefully described. Four basic conditions in which chunks can be identified and capacity limits can accordingly be observed are: (1) when information overload limits chunks to individual stimulus items, (2) when other steps are taken specifically to block the recoding of stimulus items into larger chunks, (3) in performance discontinuities caused by the capacity limit, and (4) in various indirect effects of the capacity limit. Under these conditions, rehearsal and long-term memory cannot be used to combine stimulus items into chunks of an unknown size; nor can storage mechanisms that are not capacity- limited, such as sensory memory, allow the capacity-limited storage mechanism to be refilled during recall. A single, central capacity limit averaging about four chunks is implicated along with other, noncapacity-limited sources. The pure STM capacity limit expressed in chunks is distinguished from compound STM limits obtained when the number of separately held chunks is unclear. Reasons why pure capacity estimates fall within a narrow range are discussed and a capacity limit for the focus of attention is proposed.

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The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity.

Comparing math teaching practices in Japan and Germany with those in the United States, two leading researchers offer a surprising new view of teaching and a bold action plan for improving education inside the American classroom.For years our schools and children have lagged behind international standards in reading, arithmetic, and most other areas of academic achievement. It is no secret that American schools are in dire need of improvement, and that education has become our nation's number-one priority. But even though almost every state in the country is working to develop higher standards for what students should be learning, along with the means for assessing their progress, the quick-fix solutions implemented so far haven't had a noticeable impact.The problem, as James Stigler and James Hiebert explain, is that most efforts to improve education fail because they simply don't have any impact on the quality of teaching inside classrooms. Teaching, they argue, is cultural. American teachers aren't incompetent, but the methods they use are severely limited, and American teaching has no system in place for getting better. It is teaching, not teachers, that must be changed.In "The Teaching Gap, " the authors draw on the conclusions of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) -- an innovative new study of teaching in several cultures -- to refocus educational reform efforts. Using videotaped lessons from dozens of randomly selected eighth-grade classrooms in the United States, Japan, and Germany, the authors reveal the rich, yet unfulfilled promise of American teaching and document exactly how other countries have consistently stayed ahead of us in the rate their children learn. Our schools can be restructured as places where teachers can engage in career-long learning and classrooms can become laboratories for developing new, teaching-centered ideas. If provided the time they need during the school day for collaborative lesson study and plan building, teachers "will" change the way our students learn.James Stigler and James Hiebert have given us nothing less than a "best practices" for teachers -- one that offers proof that how teachers teach is far more important than increased spending, state-of-the-art facilities, mandatory homework, or special education -- and a plan for change that educators, teachers, and parents can implement together.

The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom

To improve classroom teaching in a steady, lasting way, the teaching profession needs a knowledge base that grows and improves. In spite of the continuing efforts of researchers, archived research knowledge has had little effect on the improvement of practice in the average classroom. We explore the possibility of building a useful knowledge base for teaching by beginning with practitioners’ knowledge. We outline key features of this knowledge and identify the requirements for this knowledge to be transformed into a professional knowledge base for teaching. By reviewing educational history, we offer an incomplete explanation for why the United States has no countrywide system that meets these requirements. We conclude by wondering if U.S. researchers and teachers can make different choices in the future to enable a system for building and sustaining a professional knowledge base for teaching.

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A Knowledge Base for the Teaching Profession: What Would It Look Like and How Can We Get One?

Lisuride can be administered to persons prior or subsequent to the ingestion of alcohol to block the behavioral and physiological effects of the alcohol.

The learning gap : why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education

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Teaching Mathematics in Seven Countries: Results From the TIMSS 1999 Video Study

Preface Cultural psychology - what is it? Richard A. Shweder Part I. The Keynote Addresses: 1. On the strange and the familiar in recent anthropological thought Melford E. Spiro Part II. Cultural Cognition: 2. Some propositions about the relations between culture and human cognition Roy D'Andrade 3. Culture and moral development Richard A. Shweder, Manamohan Mahapatra and Joan G. Miller 4. The laws of sympathetic magic: a psychological analysis of similarity and contagion Paul Rozin and Carol Nemeroff 5. The development from child speaker to naive speaker Dan I. Slobin Part II. Cultural Learning: 6. The socialization of cognition: what's involved? Jacqueline J. Goodnow 7. Indexicality and socialization Elinor Ochs 8. The culture of acquisition and the practice of understanding Jean Lave 9. Mathematics learning in Japanese, Chinese, and American classrooms James W. Stigler and Michelle Perry Part IV. Cultural Selves: 10. Adolescent rituals and identity conflicts John W. M. Whiting 11. Sambia nosebleeding rites and male proximity to women Gilbert Herdt 12. On self characterization Vincent Crapanzano Part V. Cultural Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 13. Stories from Indian psychoanalysis: context and text Sudhir Kakar 14. The cultural assumptions of psychoanalysis Takeo Doi 15. Infant environments in psychoanalysis: a cross-cultural view Robert A. LeVine Part VI. Cultural Domination and Dominions: 16. Male dominance and sexual coercion Thomas Gregor 17. The children of Trackton's children: spoken and written language in social change Shirley Brice Heath 18. Cultural mode, identity, and literacy John U. Ogbu 19. Mother love and child death in northeast Brazil Nancy Scheper-Hughes Part VII. A Skeptical Reflection: 20. Social understanding and the inscription of self Kenneth J. Gergen Name index Subject index.

James W. Stigler

Papers

The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom

A Knowledge Base for the Teaching Profession: What Would It Look Like and How Can We Get One?

The learning gap : why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education

Teaching Mathematics in Seven Countries: Results From the TIMSS 1999 Video Study

Cultural psychology : essays on comparative human development