Harassment and bullying at work: A review of the scandinavian approach

Previous evidence regarding the outcomes of sexual harassment in the workplace has come mainly from self-selected samples or analogue studies or those using inadequate measures. The sexual harassment experiences, coping responses, and job-related and psychological outcomes of 447 female private-sector employees and 300 female university employees were examined. Discriminant function analyses indicated that women who had not been harassed and women who had experienced low, moderate, and high frequencies of harassment could be distinguished on the basis of both job-related and psychological outcomes. These outcomes could not be attributed to negative affective disposition, attitudes toward harassment, or general job stress. Results suggest that relatively low-level but frequent types of sexual harassment can have significant negative consequences for working women.

http://people.cas.sc.edu/swansc/SchneiderSwanFitzgerald1997JAP.pdf

Job-Related and Psychological Effects of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Empirical Evidence From Two Organizations

Perceived Retail Crowding and Shopping Satisfaction: What Modifies This Relationship?

Two studies were conducted to examine whether shopping values are affected by perceived retail crowding, and whether shopping values mediate the relationship between perceived retail crowding and shopping satisfaction. Results of the first study show that perceived retail crowding affects shopping values, albeit not very strongly. However, the effects appear to be moderated by factors such as personal tolerance for crowding, time spent shopping, shopping intention, and whether a purchase was made. Study 2 indicates that the impact of perceived crowding on shopping value is mediated by emotions experienced by the shopper. The emotions and shopping value reactions, in turn, mediate the effect of spatial crowding on shopping satisfaction. Interestingly, the results show that when these mediating variables are accounted for, human crowding positively affects shopping satisfaction. These findings provide support for the inverted U explanation in the general crowding literature, and suggest new avenues of future research in the context of retail crowding.

Perceived retail crowding and shopping satisfaction: The role of shopping values

Perceived retail crowding and shopping satisfaction: the role of shopping values

The behavioral consequences of crowding are analyzed in terms of mediation by the amount of interference experienced in a setting. It is argued that the amount of interference is the major determinant of crowding stress and one of several determinants of the subjective feeling of being crowded. Research implications of this analysis are discussed.

An interference analysis of crowding

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses determinants and effects of crowding. Analysis of crowding investigates two questions: that is, determinants of crowding and the consequences of crowding. Examination of the difficulties associated with the density model indicated that a narrow definition of crowding in terms of density is inadequate. Both input and output approaches to crowding have recognized that crowding is a subjective state with multiple antecedent factors. To restore the amount and rate of stimulus input to more acceptable levels, the individual uses various coping responses, including perceptual and cognitive filtering, adjustment of personal space, and marking of territory. To minimize the impact of potential interference the individual (or group) utilizes differing strategies, and the interference approach emphasizes individual cognitive strategies and group-based solutions in achieving this. These approaches recognize that crowding stress depends not only on interpersonal processes, but also on individual and cultural expectations. In addition, it is clear that the rapidly developing body of crowding research and theoretical analyses represent an increasingly firm basis for understanding the determinants and effects of crowding. The test of this analysis of crowding will be the extent to which it contributes to future theoretical development and empirical research in crowding.

Crowding: Determinants and Effects

Sexual harassment at work.

Purpose. There has been a great deal of debate concerning the role and sentencing of drug traffickers. Attention has been paid to the gendered organization of the drug trafficking trade whereby women tend to occupy the high-risk, low-status role of courier. The main aim of our study was to explore the role of women in drug trafficking crime. In addition, a particular interest focused on whether women were sentenced inequitably in comparison to men.



Methods. A secondary analysis was carried out of the demographic and sentencing characteristics of 1715 drug traffickers caught smuggling drugs through Heathrow Airport between July 1991 and September 1997.



Results. Women were adopting a more dangerous role by being significantly more likely to take the higher-risk, lower-status role of courier. Female couriers were physically carrying more drugs in terms of weight and value than male couriers. In addition, women were statistically more likely to carry Class A drugs rather than Class B. The results did not support claims of inequity in sentencing between men and women, allowing for the nature of the drug and its weight/estimated street value.



Conclusions. The results consolidate previous research on the disproportionate number and specific role of women involved in drug trafficking. This role appears to be counter-intuitive given the theories concerning gender stereotyping and criminality.

The role and sentencing of women in drug trafficking crime

The Personal Assessment of Intimacy in Relationships (PAIR) was developed by Schaefer & Olson (1981) to assess both the actual and ideal levels of intimacy in relationships. Attempts to replicate the original factor structure have not been reported. In Stage 1 of the present study, 157 volunteers (34 males, 123 females; mean age 27.76 years) who were currently in committed relationships completed the PAIR. Factor analysis failed to replicate the original structure but yielded a reliable, independent three-factor solution: engagement, communication and shared friendships. There were no gender differences on these factors. Confirmatory factor analysis failed to confirm this three-factor solution in a group of 145 clients (77 males, 68 females; mean age 35.79 years) presenting to a clinic for the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Principal components analysis yielded a unifactorial solution. These results suggest that people from the general population demonstrate three independent but increasingly i...

Janet E. Stockdale

Papers

An interference analysis of crowding

Crowding: Determinants and Effects

Sexual harassment at work.

The role and sentencing of women in drug trafficking crime

Factor analysis of the Personal Assessment of Intimacy in Relationships Scale (PAIR): Engagement, communication and shared friendships