Thirty-eight first grade teachers were asked to identify their two most and least successful girls and boys in mathematics, to attribute causation of these students' successes and failures, and to describe their characteristics. Teachers' choices of most and least successful students were compared to mathematics test scores of their students. Teachers were most inaccurate when selecting most successful boys. Teachers tended to attribute causation of boys' successes and failures to ability and girls' successes and failures to effort. Teachers thought their best boy students when compared to their best girl students, were more competitive, more logical, more adventurous, volunteered answers more often to mathematics problems, enjoyed math more, and were more independent in mathematics.

Teachers' attributions and beliefs about girls, boys, and mathematics

This chapter addresses issues concerning epistemology, as they relate to mathematics and education. It commences with an examination of some of the main epistemological questions concerning truth, meaning and certainty, and the different ways they can be interpreted. It examines epistemologies of the ‘context of justification’ and of the ‘context of discovery’, foundationalist and non-foundationalist epistemologies of mathematics, historico-critical, genetic, socio-historical and cultural epistemologies, and epistemologies of meaning.

Epistemologies of Mathematics and of Mathematics Education

This paper examines gender biases in school textbooks after a decade long effort by the ministry of education (MoE) Pakistan and international organisation (IOs) to eliminate all forms of gender inequality in education. The intention underpinning these initiatives was to nurture a view of gender equality based consciousness through the introduction of more positive gendered images into school textbooks in Pakistan. However, the study discussed in this paper discovered that schools textbooks are still embedded with gender-biased messages and stereotypical representations of male and females. Gender biases in 24 textbooks (Urdu, English and Social Studies) from class 1 to 8 were analysed with the help of a qualitative content analysis approach. The paper draws attention to the insouciant approach taken by the MoE and IOs towards the goal of gender equality. The study found that, despite the prevailing claims of achievements, the new textbooks are ideologically invested – and contribute to the perpetuation o...

Gender representation in the public sector schools textbooks of Pakistan

Research into gender issues in mathematics education and, in particular, into the effectiveness of related intervention programs is summarised in this chapter. Where possible, international and cultural dimensions are emphasised, and duplication of research summarised in recent reviews has been avoided. The review embraces both traditional approaches to explorations of inequities in educational practice and the growing feminist literature on the gendering of mathematics.

Research and Intervention Programs in Mathematics Education: A Gendered Issue

The Effects of Preschool Experience On
Some Aspects of Child Development in Bahrain
Recent research evidence, primarily from the Western hemisphere, supports the
belief that high quality preschool experience has long-lasting effects on the
development of children's later lives (Ball, RSA Start Right Report, 1994;
Bruner, 1980; Schweinhart, Barnes & Weikart, 1993; Sylva, 1993).
The important questions posed for this investigation in Bahrain were:
1. Is attendance at preschool centres (educationally and care
orientated) associated with higher scores on measures of child
development when compared to a control group of children who
remained at home?
2. Is attendance at educationally-orientated preschool associated
with higher scores on developmental measures than attendance
at care-orientated preschool?
3. Are educationally-orientated pre-schools providing 'a more
favourable' environment when compared with care-orientated
p re-schools?
The method was a quasi-experimental design utilising pre and post measures
over one academic school year period, 1992-1993 (approximately nine
months). A total of eight preschool institutions were randomly (stratified sample)
selected (four educationally-orientated centres and four care-orientated
centres) from four catchment areas covering the entire island of Bahrain. Each
area was represented by a sample of 35 children (matched on several
background variables) from the two types of preschool orientations and the
home group (N=140; 48 in educational group; 48 in care group; 44 in home
group). A Family Background Questionnaire (FBQ) was applied on the total
sample to measure differences between groups on several family
characteristics, such as, parent's education, occupations, household structure,
number of children in household, provisions for play and learning at home,
parent childrearing attitudes and mother's expectations regarding the child's
competence and behaviour.
111
Assessments were made of children's cognitive, social and emotional
development: the Stanford-Binet: LIM Form (Terman & Merrill, 1960); the
Arithmetic and Block Design Subtests from Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scale of Intelligence: (Wechsler, 1963); the Draw-A-Person: (Harris, 1963); The
Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young
Children: (Harter, 1983) and The Preschool Behaviour Checklist: (Richman &
McGuire, 1982). All instruments were translated into Arabic, back-translated
(Brislin, Lonner, Thomdike, 1973) and pilot tested for cultural acceptability.
For the main study (N=140), the 96 preschool attenders were tested soon after
school entry (October, 1992) and then again at school year end in June, 1993,
while the 44 children serving as the control group were tested in their homes.
All testing was carried out in the children's home language.
Additionally, two assessments procedures were used for studying the preschool
environments: the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (Harms &
Clifford, 1980); and the Target Child Observation Instrument (Sylva, Roy &
Painter, 1980).
The results indicated that attendance at preschool centres (care and
educationally-orientated) was associated with higher performance on most
aspects of development when compared with children who stayed at home.
There were significant gains on measures of cognitive development (Stanford-
Binet; WPPSI; Draw-A-Person); social competence measures, Perceived
Competence; and behavioural/emotional stability for preschool attenders when
compared to home children. Multiple regression analyses showed that children
in centre-based programmes made significant improvement over the year
interval between pre-and post testing: A further within-groups regression
analysis revealed that no particular preschool within either group was
accounting for the higher/lower scores.
Children attending educationally-orientated pre-schools significantly outperformed
children at care-orientated pre-schools and at home on all the
measures of development and they made significant improvement over the
tested time period (Stanford-Binet: p<.001; WPPSI Subtests, Arithmetic and
Block Design: p<.001; Draw-A-Person: p<.001; Preschool Behaviour Checklist:
p<.001; Harters Perceived Competence (Cognitive and Physical Competence)
and Acceptance Scale (Peer and Maternal Acceptance): p<.00l.
When comparing preschool environments (care and educational) it was found
that the educationally-orientated settings offered a greater degree of attention to
iv
personal care, language/reasoning experiences and the opportunity for creative
and social development when compared with the care orientated pre-schools
(ECERS, p<.O1). Teachers at the educational centres were more inclined to
support, question and have dialogue with the children when compared to
teachers at the care centres. Children at care centres engaged more in adultdirected
activities, spent less time in challenging tasks for shorter periods of
time (concentration bouts) and had more dialogue with other children when
compared with children at educationally-orientated preschools (Target Child
Time Sampling).
Implications of this research for preschool educators in Bahrain are discussed
as well as varying definitions of 'quality.'

The effects of preschool experience on some aspects of child development in Bahrain

Summary This paper reports on an examination of a number of maths books originally undertaken as part of a contribution to a maths diploma course for primary teachers. The books cover the age range 3–13 and were published between 1970 and 1978. It was discovered that mathematical and scientific skills become increasingly defined as masculine as the pupils move through junior and middle school. Men feature predominantly in these materials throughout the age range and there are few models of adult females operating in the world of mathematics. The representation of girls becomes more marginal and they almost disappear from the scene towards the upper limit of the age range. The fading presence of girls in these books parallels the decline in girls' involvement and achievement in maths between infant school and GCE O and A level examinations.

Girls and boys in primary maths books

The next two articles are closely linked in theme and purpose. Jean Northam first turns our attention to an area under-represented in articles submitted to 3–13 . She claims that our notions of ‘pre-school’ education are often too bland, “mythically powerful … empirically non-existent”. She argues that this results in both over-simplified discussions of provision and policy and in a blurred view of the various social influences upon very young children. Her article is a timely updating of the current research — and will hopefully promote more contributions from practitioners in the areas discussed.

Jean Northam

Papers

Girls and boys in primary maths books

The myth of the pre-school