Mary Story, Karen Kaphingst, and Simone French argue that U.S. schools offer many opportunities for developing obesity-prevention strategies by providing more nutritious food, offering greater opportunities for physical activity, and providing obesity-related health services. Meals at school are available both through the U.S. Department of Agriculture's school breakfast and lunch programs and through "competitive foods" sold a la carte in cafeterias, vending machines, and snack bars. School breakfasts and school lunches must meet federal nutrition standards, but competitive foods are exempt from such requirements. And budget pressures force schools to sell the popular but nutritionally poor foods a la carte. Public discomfort with the school food environment is growing. But can schools provide more healthful food options without losing money? Limited evidence shows that they can. Although federal nutrition regulations are inadequate, they permit state and local authorities to impose additional restrictions. And many are doing so. Some states limit sales of nonnutritious foods, and many large school districts restrict competitive foods. Several interventions have changed school food environments, for example, by reducing fat content of food in vending machines and making more fruits and vegetables available. Interventions are just beginning to target the availability of competitive foods. Other pressures can also compromise schools' efforts to encourage physical activity. As states use standardized tests to hold schools and students academically accountable, physical education and recess have become a lower priority. But some states are now mandating and promoting more physical activity in schools. School health services can also help address obesity by providing screening, health information, and referrals to students, especially low-income students, who are at high risk of obesity, tend to be underinsured, and may not receive health services elsewhere.

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The role of schools in obesity prevention.

Although educators widely use school gardens for experiential education, researchers have not systematically examined the evaluative literature on school-gardening outcomes. The author reviewed the U. S. literature on children's gardening, taking into account potential effects, school-gardening outcomes, teacher evaluations of gardens as learning tools, and methodological issues. Quantitative studies showed positive outcomes of school-gardening initiatives in the areas of science achievement and food behavior, but they did not demonstrate that children's environmental attitude or social behavior consistently improve with gardening. Validity and reliability issues reduced general confidence in these results. Qualitative studies documented a wider scope of desirable outcomes, including an array of positive social and environmental behaviors. Gardening enthusiasm varies among teachers, depending on support and horticultural confidence.

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The Child in the Garden: An Evaluative Review of the Benefits of School Gardening

Fruit and Vegetable Intake among Urban Community Gardeners

A Review of Research on Outdoor Learning

http://ecite.utas.edu.au/125235/2/125235%20-%20Past%20results%20and%20future%20directions%20in%20urban%20community%20gardens%20research.pdf

Past results and future directions in urban community gardens research

Garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum improves fourth-grade school children's knowledge of nutrition and preferences for some vegetables

To encourage first-graders to increase their consumption of fruits and vegetables, a garden-enhanced nutrition education program was developed and taught to them. The study was a pilot to assess the feasibility of garden-based education programs for elementary-school students. The first-grade children learned about nutrition in the classroom while growing vegetables outdoors in their own gardens. This experience resulted in the children's increased willingness to taste those vegetables grown in the gardens. Improving children's desire to taste vegetables is thought to be the first step in developing healthier consumption patterns.

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First-grade gardeners more likely to taste vegetables

Nutrition to Grow On: A Garden-Enhanced Nutrition Education Curriculum for Upper-Elementary Schoolchildren

Fruits and vegetables are important in a child's diet because they provide the body with vitamins, minerals, fiber and several phytochemicals necessary for growth and development and health maintenance. However, a recent study found that only 7% of children aged 2 to 11 consumed the recommended two servings of fruits and three servings of vegetables each day. A limited number of nutrition education programs have been shown to improve dietary choices and self-reported health knowledge and behavior by school-aged children, at least in short-term results. An innovative approach is needed to motivate children to develop lifelong healthy eating habits. Our research shows that incorporating gardens into the school environment can reinforce nutrition lessons. Likewise, children who plant and harvest their own vegetables are more willing to taste and even like them. California Superintendent of Public Instruction Delaine Eastin has set a goal of “a garden in every school.” As more of the state's farmland is lost to development, garden activities can reinforce good nutrition as well as teach California students about the value of agriculture.

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School-based gardens can teach kids healthier eating habits

The purpose of this project was to develop a garden-enhanced nutrition education curriculum and relevant assessment tools that could be used for formal evaluation. The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) provided the foundation for the objectives, activities, and evaluation. The curriculum was developed for upper-elementary schoolchildren and included nine key nutrition topics. Master gardeners linked each of the nutrition lessons to appropriate gardening activities, which provided students with the opportunity to plant and harvest their own vegetables. Each lesson was field tested in several classrooms until the content and delivery of the material was appropriate. The final lessons consisted of a nutrition lesson, a gardening activity, a family newsletter, and other useful information for teachers. Assessment tools used in the formal evaluation of the curriculum included a nutrition knowledge questionnaire and a vegetable preference survey. The preference survey asked students to taste six different vegetables, rate their preferences, and answer four questions related to their knowledge of and behavior toward the vegetables. Nutrition and gardening professionals reviewed the lessons and assessment tools for accuracy prior to the formal evaluation. Three schools participated in the formal evaluation of the curriculum. One school served as a control site and did not receive any nutrition lessons or gardening activities (CO), a second school received only the nutrition lessons and did not participate in any gardening activities (NL), and a third school received both the nutrition lessons and gardening activities (NG). Evaluation took place before the intervention (pre-test), after the intervention (post-test), and six months later (follow-up). This report focuses on selected knowledge and behavior results from the vegetable preference survey. The NG site results demonstrated improvements in knowledge and behavior at post-test and at follow-up. The garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum described herein is an effective means of teaching nutrition education to elementary schoolchildren. The incorporation of gardening activities further enhanced its effectiveness. The lessons have been linked to applicable California State Content Standards to assist teachers in developing lesson plans to teach core subjects. This program also provides an excellent opportunity for foodservice staff and teachers to work together. Extra fruits and vegetables from the garden can be offered at the school cafeteria. This may lower foodservice costs, as well as provide students with opportunities to try new fruits and vegetables.

Jennifer L. Morris

Papers

Garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum improves fourth-grade school children's knowledge of nutrition and preferences for some vegetables

First-grade gardeners more likely to taste vegetables

Nutrition to Grow On: A Garden-Enhanced Nutrition Education Curriculum for Upper-Elementary Schoolchildren

School-based gardens can teach kids healthier eating habits

Development and evaluation of a garden-enhanced nutrition education curriculum for elementary schoolchildren