Framework Convention on Climate Change

Adaptation in agriculture to climate change is important for impact andvulnerability assessment and for the development of climate change policy. A wide variety of adaptation options has been proposed as having thepotential to reduce vulnerability of agricultural systems to risks related toclimate change, often in an ad hoc fashion. This paper develops atypology of adaptation to systematically classify and characterize agriculturaladaptation options to climate change, drawing primarily on the Canadiansituation. In particular, it differentiates adaptation options in agricultureaccording to the involvement of different agents (producers, industries,governments); the intent, timing and duration of employment of theadaptation; the form and type of the adaptive measure; and the relationshipto processes already in place to cope with risks associated with climatestresses. A synthesis of research on adaptation options in Canadianagriculture identifies four main categories: (i) technological developments,(ii) government programs and insurance, (iii) farm production practices,and (iv) farm financial management. In addition to these `directadaptations', there are options, particularly information provision, that maystimulate adaptation initiatives. The results reveal that most adaptationoptions are modifications to on-going farm practices and public policydecision-making processes with respect to a suite of changing climatic(including variability and extremes) and non-climatic conditions (political,economic and social). For progress on implementing adaptations to climatechange in agriculture there is a need to better understand the relationshipbetween potential adaptation options and existing farm-level andgovernment decision-making processes and risk management frameworks.

/pdf/adaptation-options-in-agriculture-to-climate-change-a-3pe5ophaq0.pdf

Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a typology

Many definitions of food security exist, and these have been the subject of much debate. As early as 1992, Maxwell and Smith (1992) reviewed more than 180 items discussing concepts and definitions, and more definitions have been formulated since (DEFRA, 2006). Whereas many earlier definitions centered on food production, more recent definitions highlight access to food, in keeping with the 1996 World Food Summit definition (FAO, 1996) that food security is met when “all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” Worldwide attention on food access was given impetus by the food “price spike” in 2007–2008, triggered by a complex set of long- and short-term factors (FAO, 2009b; von Braun and Torero, 2009). FAO concluded, “provisional estimates show that, in 2007, 75 million more people were added to the total number of undernourished relative to 2003–05” (FAO, 2008); this is arguably a low-end estimate (Headey and Fan, 2010). More than enough food is currently produced per capita to feed the global population, yet about 870 million people remained hungry in the period from 2010 to 2012 (FAO et al., 2012). The questions for this chapter are how far climate and its change affect current food production systems and food security and the extent to which they will do so in the future (Figure 7-1).

Food security and food production systems

– A lot of literature is available that discusses personal determinants of organic food consumption. However different models and determinants are used in the literature. This paper aims to provide an overview, within a framework linking Schwartz' values theory and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Also it seeks to focus on the importance of affective attitude, emotions, personal norm, involvement and uncertainty related to organic food consumption., – The paper is based on secondary data sources, namely the literature concerning personal determinants of organic food consumption., – Both the values theory and the theory of planned behaviour have been referred to as relevant theories for better understanding consumers' choice for organic food. Organic food consumption decisions can be explained by relating attributes of organic food with more abstract values such as “security”, “hedonism”, “universalism”, “benevolence”, “stimulation”, “self‐direction” and “conformity”. Appealing to these values can positively influence attitudes towards organic food consumption. Besides attitude, subjective and personal norm and (perceived) behavioural control influence consumption of organic food., – More research related to the role of uncertainty (reduction) during the process of buying organic food is recommended., – Relatively little research has examined the affective component of attitude and emotions in relation to organic food consumption, while these may play an important role as drivers of involvement and thus help to jolt food purchasers out of their routine of buying conventional food and set a first step to adopt organic food., – To the authors' knowledge, this is the first paper providing a comprehensive overview and linking the literature on organic food consumption to the values theory and the theory of planned behaviour, including the role of personal norm and focusing on emotions. The proposed integration of mental processing in an organic food consumption model leads to interesting hypotheses and recommendations for policy makers, researchers and stakeholders involved in the organic food market.

/pdf/personal-determinants-of-organic-food-consumption-a-review-jwz8cbcsu2.pdf

Personal determinants of organic food consumption: a review

/pdf/coping-better-with-current-climatic-variability-in-the-rain-2uo9wn2ixk.pdf

Coping better with current climatic variability in the rain-fed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in adapting to future climate change?

A growing literature suggests that in low-income countries, households with few assets can be trapped in chronic poverty. This article reviews relevant threads of the poverty traps literature to motivate a description of the opportunities presented by innovative index-based risk transfer products. These products can be used to address some insurance and credit market failures that contribute to the persistence of poverty among households in low-income countries. Applications are considered at the micro, meso, and macro levels.

Poverty Traps and Index Based Risk Transfer Products

http://globalagrisk.com/Pubs/2007%20Poverty%20Traps%20Index-Based%20Risk%20Transfer.pdf

Poverty Traps and Index-Based Risk Transfer Products

This article documents the design and rate-making procedures used in the development of the Group Risk Plan (GRP)—the new federal crop insurance product that insures based on area yield. The authors of this article worked closely with personnel in the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation and others in developing methodological and practical constraints needed in implementing a workable area yield contract. GRP indemnity payments are made based on percentage shortfalls in actual county yields relative to a forecasted yield. Historical county yield data are used to develop forecasted yields and premium rates.

/pdf/designing-and-rating-an-area-yield-crop-insurance-contract-31mycn95im.pdf

Designing and Rating an Area Yield Crop Insurance Contract

Natural disasters can be extremely disruptive to farmers and to others whose incomes depend on a successful crop. Society can gain from more efficient sharing of crop and natural disaster risks. However, the costs associated with traditional agricultural risk programs have historically exceeded the gains from improved risk sharing. This paper explores government intervention in agricultural risk markets and discusses new approaches to risk sharing with limited government involvement. In particular, we build the case for introducing negotiable state-contingent contracts settled on area crop yield estimates or locally appropriate weather indices. These instruments could replace traditional crop insurance at a lower cost to government while meeting the risk management needs of a wider clientele.

New Approaches to Crop Yield Insurance in Developing Countries

This research identifies two problems in the new Federal Crop Insurance that may cause adverse selection: (a) the relationship between rate making and expected yields for individual farmers, and (b) the bias introduced in coverage protection when trends are not used to establish expected yields. A theoretical investigation using the normality assumption demonstrates the potential severity of these problems, and empirical results from farm-level data lend further support. As crop insurance changes to individualized methods of protection, these issues will be particularly important for developing rates.

Jerry R. Skees

Papers

Poverty Traps and Index Based Risk Transfer Products

Poverty Traps and Index-Based Risk Transfer Products

Designing and Rating an Area Yield Crop Insurance Contract

New Approaches to Crop Yield Insurance in Developing Countries

Rate Making for Farm-Level Crop Insurance: Implications for Adverse Selection