Tremendous efforts are being made to develop electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators for energy storage devices to meet the needs of emerging technologies such as electric vehicles, decarbonized electricity, and electrochemical energy storage. However, the sustainability concerns of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and next-generation rechargeable batteries have received little attention. Recycling plays an important role in the overall sustainability of future batteries and is affected by battery attributes including environmental hazards and the value of their constituent resources. Therefore, recycling should be considered when developing battery systems. Herein, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery sustainability. With a particular focus on electric vehicles, we analyze the market competitiveness of batteries in terms of economy, environment, and policy. Considering the large volumes of batteries soon to be retired, we comprehensively evaluate battery utilization and recycling from the perspectives of economic feasibility, environmental impact, technology, and safety. Battery sustainability is discussed with respect to life-cycle assessment and analyzed from the perspectives of strategic resources and economic demand. Finally, we propose a 4H strategy for battery recycling with the aims of high efficiency, high economic return, high environmental benefit, and high safety. New challenges and future prospects for battery sustainability are also highlighted.

Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects.

Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted significant attention in recent years due to the increasing demand for corresponding critical metals/materials and growing pressure on the environmental impact of solid waste disposal. A range of investigations have been carried out for recycling spent LIBs to obtain either battery materials or individual compounds. For the effective recovery of materials to be enhanced, physical pretreatment is usually applied to obtain different streams of waste materials ensuring efficient separation for further processing. Subsequently, a metallurgical process is used to extract metals or separate impurities from a specific waste stream so that the recycled materials or compounds can be further prepared by incorporating principles of materials engineering. In this review, the current status of spent LIB recycling is summarized in light of the whole recycling process, especially focusing on the hydrometallurgy. In addition to understanding different hydromet...

A Critical Review and Analysis on the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

Ever-growing global energy needs and environmental damage have motivated the pursuit of sustainable energy sources and storage technologies. As attractive energy storage technologies to integrate renewable resources and electric transportation, rechargeable batteries, including lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride, nickel–cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries, are undergoing unprecedented rapid development. However, the intrinsic toxicity of rechargeable batteries arising from their use of toxic materials is potentially environmentally hazardous. Additionally, the massive production of batteries consumes numerous resources, some of which are scarce. It is therefore essential to consider battery recycling when developing battery systems. Here, we provide a systematic overview of rechargeable battery recycling from a sustainable perspective. We present state-of-the-art fundamental research and industrial technologies related to battery recycling, with a special focus on lithium-ion battery recycling. We introduce the concept of sustainability through a discussion of the life-cycle assessment of battery recycling. Considering the forecasted trend of a massive number of retired power batteries from the forecasted surge in electric vehicles, their repurposing and reuse are considered from economic, technical, environmental, and market perspectives. New opportunities, challenges, and future prospects for battery recycling are then summarized. A reinterpreted 3R strategy entailing redesign, reuse, and recycling is recommended for the future development of battery recycling.

Toward sustainable and systematic recycling of spent rechargeable batteries

Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: Recent advances and perspectives

A Mini-Review on Metal Recycling from Spent Lithium Ion Batteries

In this study, a green process with prospective environmental and economic significance has been experimentally and theoretically established for the sustainable recovery of metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Three leaching systems were explored for the application of different biomass as reductants. According to leaching results, H3Cit (citric acid) and tea waste and H3Cit/H2O2 systems reveal similar leaching abilities (96% Co and 98% Li; 98% Co and 99% Li, respectively), while the H3Cit/Phytolacca Americana system shows inferior leaching performance (83% Co and 96% Li) under the optimized conditions. Tentative exploration of oxidation mechanism for different biomass indicates that potential reducing substances contained in biomass can be employed as efficient reductants during leaching. Then both metal ions and waste citric acid can be simultaneously recovered by selective precipitation. About 99% Co and 93% Li could be recovered as CoC2O4·2H2O and Li3PO4, and the recycled citric acid demon...

Sustainable Recovery of Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Green Process

An atom-economic process for the recovery of high value-added metals from spent lithium-ion batteries

Separation and recovery of metal values from leach liquor of waste lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide based cathodes

TiO 2 /fluorinated acrylic nanocomposite paint with functional surfaces is synthesized in this study. A series of measurements were carried out for the obtained product. First, the weight-average molar mass (Mw) and glass transition temperature (Tg) of the fluorinated acrylic resin were measured by Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Then Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and immersion test in simulated marine environment were conducted to verify the presence of nano- titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) inside fluorinated acrylic polymer and the biofouling degree of the tested coatings. It can be concluded that the antifouling performance can be improved significantly by adding surface-modified nano-TiO 2 . All the results can support a toxin-free and eco-friendly alternative for the preparation of marine antifouling paint.

Jiangrong Kong

Papers

Sustainable Recovery of Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Green Process

An atom-economic process for the recovery of high value-added metals from spent lithium-ion batteries

Separation and recovery of metal values from leach liquor of waste lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide based cathodes

A novel composite paint (TiO2/fluorinated acrylic nanocomposite) for antifouling application in marine environments

Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ-based dual-gradient cathodes for solid oxide fuel cells