Effects of various fillers on the sliding wear of polymer composites

A study on the friction and wear behavior of PTFE filled with alumina nanoparticles

The article contains sections titled:



1.	Introduction	
2.	Lubricants in the Tribological System	
2.1.	Friction	
2.1.1.	Types of Friction	
2.1.2.	Friction and Lubrication Conditions	
2.2.	Wear	
3.	Rheology of Lubricants	
3.1.	Viscosity	
3.2.	Special Rheological Effects	
3.3.	Viscosity Grades	
4.	Base Oils	
4.1.	Historical Review and Outlook	
4.2.	Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils	
4.3.	Refining	
4.3.1.	Distillation	
4.3.2.	Deasphalting	
4.3.3.	Traditional Refining Processes	
4.3.3.1.	Acid Refining	
4.3.3.2.	Solvent Extraction	
4.3.4.	Solvent Dewaxing	
4.3.5.	Finishing	
4.4.	Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking	
4.4.1.	Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation	
4.4.2.	Production of White Oils	
4.4.3.	Lube Hydrocracking	
4.4.4.	Catalytic Dewaxing	
4.4.5.	Wax Isomerization	
4.4.6.	Hybrid Lube Oil Processing	
4.4.7.	All-Hydrogen Route	
4.4.8.	Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology	
4.5.	Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils	
5.	Synthetic Base Oils	
5.1.	Synthetic Hydrocarbons	
5.1.1.	Polyalphaolefins	
5.1.2.	Polyinternalolefins	
5.1.3.	Polybutenes	
5.1.4.	Alkylated Aromatics	
5.1.5.	Other Hydrocarbons	
5.2.	Halogenated Hydrocarbons	
5.3.	Synthetic Esters	
5.3.1.	Esters of Carboxylic Acids	
5.3.1.1.	Dicarboxylic Acid Esters	
5.3.1.2.	Polyol Esters	
5.3.1.3.	Other Carboxylic Esters	
5.3.1.4.	Complex Esters	
5.3.1.5.	Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters	
5.3.2.	Phosphate Esters	
5.4.	Polyalkylene Glycols	
5.5.	Other Polyethers	
5.5.1.	Perfluorinated Polyethers	
5.5.2.	Polyphenyl Ethers	
5.5.3.	Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils)	
5.6.	Other Synthetic Base Oils	
5.7.	Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants	
6.	Additives	
6.1.	Antioxidants	
6.1.1.	Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants	
6.1.2.	Compounds	
6.2.	Viscosity Modifiers	
6.2.1.	VI Improvement Mechanisms	
6.2.2.	Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers	
6.3.	Pour Point Depressants	
6.4.	Detergents and Dispersants	
6.4.1.	Metal-Containing Compounds (Detergents)	
6.4.2.	Ashless Dispersants (AD)	
6.5.	Antifoam Agents	
6.6.	Demulsifiers	
6.7.	Dyes	
6.8.	Antiwear and Extreme Pressure Additives	
6.9.	Friction Modifiers	
6.10.	Corrosion Inhibitors	
6.10.1.	Antirust Additives	
6.10.2.	Metal Passivators	
7.	Lubricants in the Environment	
7.1.	Current Situation	
7.1.1.	Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential	
7.1.2.	Agriculture, Economy, and Politics	
7.2.	Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants	
7.2.1.	Synthetic Esters	
7.2.2.	Polyalkylene Glycols	
7.2.3.	Polyalphaolefins	
7.2.4.	Relevant Properties of Biodegradable Base Oils	
7.3.	Additives	
7.4.	Products (Examples)	
8.	Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines	
8.1.	Four-Stroke Engine Oils	
8.1.1.	General Overview	
8.1.1.1.	Fundamental Principles	
8.1.1.2.	Performance Specifications	
8.1.1.3.	Formulation of Engine Oils	
8.1.1.4.	Additives	
8.1.2.	Characterization and Testing	
8.1.2.1.	Physical and Chemical Testing	
8.1.2.2.	Engine Testing	
8.1.2.3.	Passenger Car Engine Oils	
8.1.2.4.	Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles	
8.1.3.	Classification by Specification	
8.1.3.1.	MIL Specifications	
8.1.3.2.	API and ILSAC Classification	
8.1.3.3.	ACEA Specifications	
8.1.3.4.	Manufacturers’ Approvals	
8.1.3.5.	Future Trends	
8.2.	Two-Stroke Oils	
8.2.1.	Application and Characteristics	
8.2.2.	Classification	
8.2.2.1.	API Service Groups	
8.2.2.2.	JASO Classification	
8.2.2.3.	ISO Classification	
8.2.3.	Oils for Two-Stroke Outboard Engines	
8.2.4.	Environmentally Friendly Two-Stroke Oils	
8.3.	Tractor Oils	
8.4.	Gas Engine Oils	
8.5.	Marine Diesel Engine Oils	
8.5.1.	Low-Speed Crosshead Engines	
8.5.2.	Medium-Speed Engines	
8.5.3.	Lubricants	
9.	Gear Lubrication Oils	
9.1.	Introduction	
9.2.	Requirements of Gear Lubrication Oils	
9.3.	Tribology of Gears	
9.3.1.	Friction Conditions of Gear Types	
9.3.2.	Specific Gear and Transmission Failure	
9.4.	Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles	
9.4.1.	Lubricants for Gear Drives in Commercial Vehicles	
9.4.2.	Lubricants for Gear Drives in Passenger Cars	
9.4.3.	Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs	
9.5.	Multipurpose Lubricants in Vehicle Gears	
9.6.	Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears	
10.	Compressor Oils	
10.1.	Gas Compressor	
10.1.1.	Displacement Compressors	
10.1.2.	Dynamic Compressors	
10.1.3.	Preparation of Compressed Air	
10.1.4.	Oils for Compression of Other Gases	
10.1.5.	Characteristics of Gas Compressor Oils	
10.1.6.	Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils	
10.2.	Refrigerator Oils	
10.2.1.	Introduction	
10.2.2.	Minimum Requirements	
10.2.3.	Classification	
10.2.4.	Viscosity Selection	
11.	Turbine Oils	
11.1.	Demands on Turbine Oils - Characteristics	
11.2.	Formulation	
11.3.	Specifications	
11.4.	Turbine Oil Circuits	
11.5.	Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils	
11.6.	Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils	
11.7.	Gas Turbine Oils - Application and Requirements	
11.8.	Fire-Resistant, Water-Free Fluids for Power Station Applications	
11.9.	Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants	
12.	Metalworking Fluids	
12.1.	Mechanism of Action	
12.2.	Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids	
12.2.1.	Composition	
12.2.2.	Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods	
12.2.3.	Concentration of Water-Mixed Cutting Fluids	
12.2.4.	Stability of Coolants	
12.2.5.	Foaming Properties	
12.2.6.	Preservation of Coolants with Biocides	
12.3.	Neat Cutting Fluids	
12.3.1.	Specifications	
12.3.2.	Composition	
12.4.	Application	
12.4.1.	Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges	
12.4.2.	Machining with Geometric Non-Defined Cutting Edges	
12.5.	Storage	
12.6.	Environmental Aspects	
12.7.	New Trends in Coolant Technology	
13.	Forming Lubricants	
13.1.	Sheet Metal Working Lubricants	
13.1.1.	Deep Drawing	
13.1.2.	Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing	
13.1.3.	Shear Cutting	
13.1.4.	Choice of Lubricants	
13.1.5.	Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing	
13.2.	Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing	
13.2.1.	Wire Drawing	
13.2.2.	Profile Drawing	
13.2.3.	Tube Drawing	
13.2.4.	Hydroforming	
13.3.	Lubricants for Rolling	
13.3.1.	Rolling Steel Sheet	
13.3.2.	Rolling Aluminum Sheet	
13.3.3.	Rolling of Other Materials	
13.4.	Lubricants for Solid Metal Forming	
14.	Lubricating Greases	
14.1.	Introduction	
14.2.	Components of Greases	
14.2.1.	Thickeners	
14.2.1.1.	Simple Soaps	
14.2.1.2.	Complex Soaps	
14.2.2.	Other Ionic Organic Thickeners	
14.2.3.	Nonionic Organic Thickeners	
14.2.4.	Inorganic Thickeners	
14.2.5.	Miscellaneous Thickeners	
14.2.6.	Temporarily Thickened Fluids	
14.3.	Base Oils	
14.3.1.	Mineral Oils	
14.3.2.	Synthetic Base Oils	
14.4.	Grease Structure	
14.5.	Additives	
14.6.	Manufacture of Greases	
14.6.1.	Metal Soap-Based Greases	
14.6.2.	Oligourea Greases	
14.6.3.	Gel Greases	
14.7.	Grease Rheology	
14.8.	Performance	
14.8.1.	Test Methods	
14.8.2.	Analytical Methods	
14.9.	Applications	
14.9.1.	Roller Bearings	
14.9.2.	Cars, Trucks, Construction Vehicles	
14.9.3.	Steel Mills	
14.9.4.	Mining	
14.9.5.	Railroad, Railway	
14.9.6.	Gears	
14.9.7.	Food-Grade Applications	
14.9.8.	Textile Machines	
14.9.9.	Applications with Polymeric Materials	
14.10.	Ecology and the Environment	
14.11.	Grease Tribology	
15.	Solid Lubricants	
15.1.	Classification	
15.1.1.	Class 1: Structural Lubricants	
15.1.2.	Class 2: Mechanical Lubricants	
15.1.3.	Class 3: Soaps	
15.1.4.	Class 4: Chemically Active Lubricants	
15.2.	Characteristics	
15.2.1.	Crystal Structures of Lamellar Solid Lubricants	
15.2.2.	Heat Stability	
15.2.3.	Thermal Conductivity	
15.2.4.	Adsorbed Films	
15.2.5.	Chemical Stability	
15.2.6.	Particle Size	
15.3.	Products Containing Solid Lubricants	
15.3.1.	Powders	
15.3.2.	Dispersions and Suspensions	
15.3.3.	Greases and Grease Pastes	
15.3.4.	Pastes	
15.3.5.	Dry-Film Lubricants	
15.4.	Industrial Uses of Products Containing Solid Lubricants	
15.4.1.	Screw Lubrication	
15.4.2.	Roller-Bearing Lubrication	
15.4.3.	Slide Bearing, Slide Guideway, and Slide Surface Lubrication	
15.4.4.	Chain Lubrication	
15.4.5.	Plastic and Elastomer Lubrication	
16.	Testing and Analysis	
16.1.	Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils	
16.2.	Laboratory Methods for Testing Lubricants	
16.2.1.	Density	
16.2.2.	Viscosity	
16.2.3.	Refractive Index	
16.2.4.	Structural Analyses	
16.2.5.	Flash Point	
16.2.6.	Surface Phenomena	
16.2.7.	Cloud Point, Pour Point	
16.2.8.	Aniline Point	
16.2.9.	Water Content	
16.2.10.	Ash Content	
16.2.11.	Acidity, Alkalinity	
16.2.12.	Aging Tests	
16.2.13.	Hydrolytic Stability	
16.2.14.	Corrosion Tests	
16.2.15.	Oil Compatibility of Seals and Insulating Materials	
16.2.16.	Evaporation Loss	
16.2.17.	Analysis of Grease	
16.3.	Mechanical - Dynamic Testing Methods for Lubricants	
16.3.1.	Tribological System Categories within Lubricant Tests	
16.3.2.	Standardized and Nonstandardized Test Methods for Lubricants	
16.3.3.	Common Mechanical - Dynamic Testers	
17.	Economic Aspects	
18.	Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils	
18.1.	Possible Uses of Waste Oil	
18.2.	Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning	
18.3.	Re-refining	
19.	Toxicology and Occupational Health	
19.1.	Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials)	
19.1.1.	Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA)	
19.1.2.	Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids	
19.2.	Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants	
20.	Acknowledgement

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