Evolution of Protein Molecules

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO KARST. 1.1 Definitions. 1.2 The Relationship Between Karst And General Geomorphology And Hydrogeology. 1.3 The Global Distribution Of Karst. 1.4 The Growth Of Ideas. 1.5 Aims Of The Book. 1.6 Karst Terminology. CHAPTER 2. THE KARST ROCKS. 2.1 Carbonate Rocks And Minerals. 2.2 Limestone Compositions And Depositional Facies. 2.3 Limestone Diagenesis And The Formation Of Dolomite. 2.4 The Evaporite Rocks. 2.5. Quartzites And Siliceous Sandstones. 2.6 Effects Of Lithologic Properties Upon Karst Development. 2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks. 2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults And Fracture Traces. 2.9 Fold Topography. 2.10 Paleokarst Unconformities. CHAPTER 3. DISSOLUTION: CHEMICAL AND KINETIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE KARST ROCKS. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Aqueous Solutions And Chemical Equilibria. 3.3 The Dissolution Of Anhydrite, Gypsum And Salt. 3.4 The Dissolution Of Silica. 3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks In Normal Meteoric Waters. 3.6 The S-O-H System And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks. 3.7 Chemical Complications In Carbonate Dissolution. 3.8 Biokarst Processes. 3.9 Measurements In The Field And Lab Computer Programs. 3.10 Dissolution And Precipitation Kinetics Of Karst Rocks. CHAPTER 4. DISTRIBUTION AND RATE OF KARST DENUDATION. 4.1 Global Variations In The Solutional Denudation Of Carbonate Terrains. 4.2 Measurement And Calculation Of Solutional Denudation Rates. 4.3 Solution Rates In Gypsum, Salt And Other Non-Carbonate Rocks. 4.4 Interpretation Of Measurements. CHAPTER 5. KARST HYDROLOGY. 5.1 Basic Hydrological Concepts, Terms And Definitions. 5.2 Controls On The Development Of Karst Hydrologic Systems. 5.3 Energy Supply And Flow Network Development. 5.4 Development Of The Water Table And Phreatic Zones. 5.5 Development Of The Vadose Zone. 5.6 Classification And Characteristics Of Karst Aquifers. 5.7 Applicability Of Darcy's Law To Karst. 5.8 The Fresh Water/Salt Water Interface. CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF KARST DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. 6.1 The 'Grey Box' Nature Of Karst. 6.2 Surface Exploration And Survey Techniques. 6.3 Investigating Recharge And Percolation In The Vadose Zone. 6.4 Borehole Analysis. 6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis. 6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis. 6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation. 6.8 Storage Volumes And Flow Routing Under Different States Of The Hydrograph. 6.9 Interpreting The Organisation Of A Karst Aquifer. 6.10 Water Tracing Techniques. 6.11 Computer Modelling Of Karst Aquifers. CHAPTER 7. SPELEOGENESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVE SYSTEMS. 7.1 Classifying Cave Systems. 7.2 Building The Plan Patterns Of Unconfined Caves. 7.3 Unconfined Cave Development In Length And Depth. 7.4 System Modifications Occurring Within A Single Phase. 7.5 Multi-Phase Cave Systems. 7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There Is Confined Circulation Or Basal Injection Of Water. 7.7 Hypogene Caves: (A) Hydrothermal Caves Associated Chiefly With Co2. 7.8 Hypogene Caves: (B) Caves Formed By Waters Containing H2s. 7.9 Sea Coast Eogenetic Caves. 7.10 Passage Cross-Sections And Smaller Features Of Erosional Morphology. 7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion, And Weathering In Caves. 7.12 Breakdown In Caves. CHAPTER 8. CAVE INTERIOR DEPOSITS. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Clastic Sediments. 8.3 Calcite, Aragonite And Other Carbonate Precipitates. 8.4 Other Cave Minerals. 8.5 Ice In Caves. 8.6 Dating Of Calcite Speleothems And Other Cave Deposits. 8.7 Paleo-Environmental Analysis Of Calcite Speleothems. 8.8 Mass Flux Through A Cave System: The Example Of Friar's Hole, W.Va. CHAPTER 9. KARST LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT IN HUMID REGIONS. 9.1 Coupled Hydrological And Geochemical Systems. 9.2 Small Scale Solution Sculpture - Microkarren And Karren. 9.3 Dolines - The 'Diagnostic' Karst Landform? 9.4 The Origin And Development Of Solution Dolines. 9.5 The Origin Of Collapse And Subsidence Depressions. 9.6 Polygonal Karst. 9.7 Morphometric Analysis Of Solution Dolines. 9.8 Landforms Associated With Allogenic Inputs. 9.9 Karst Poljes. 9.10 Corrosional Plains And Shifts In Baselevel. 9.11 Residual Hills On Karst Plains. 9.12 Depositional And Constructional Karst Features. 9.13 Special Features Of Evaporite Terrains. 9.14 Karstic Features Of Quartzose And Other Rocks. 9.15 Sequences Of Carbonate Karst Evolution In Humid Terrains. CHAPTER 10.THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT. 10.1 The Precepts Of Climatic Geomorphology. 10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme. 10.3 The Cold Extreme: 1 Karst Development In Glaciated Terrains. 10.4 The Cold Extreme: 2 Karst Development In Permafrozen Terrains. 10.5 Sea Level Changes, Tectonic Movement And Implications For Coastal Karst Development. 10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic And Exhumed Karsts. CHAPTER 11. KARST WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. 11.1 Water Resources And Sustainable Yields. 11.2 Determination Of Available Water Resources. 11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping. 11.4 Human Impacts On Karst Water. 11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection, And Risk Mapping. 11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures And Impacts. CHAPTER 12. HUMAN IMPACTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION. 12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability Of Karst Systems. 12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts And Rocky Desertification. 12.3 Sinkholes Induced By De-Watering, Surcharging, Solution Mining And Other Practices On Karst. 12.4 Problems Of Construction On And In The Karst Rocks - Expect The Unexpected! 12.5 Industrial Exploitation Of Karst Rocks And Minerals. 12.6 Restoration Of Karstlands And Rehabilitation Of Limestone Quarries. 12.7 Sustainable Management Of Karst. 12.8 Scientific, Cultural And Recreational Values Of Karstlands.

Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology

Ichnology is the study of traces created in the substrate by living organisms. This is the first book to systematically cover basic concepts and applications in both paleobiology and sedimentology, bridging the gap between the two main facets of the field. It emphasizes the importance of understanding ecologic controls on benthic fauna distribution and the role of burrowing organisms in changing their environments. A detailed analysis of the ichnology of a range of depositional environments is presented using examples from the Precambrian to the recent, and the use of trace fossils in facies analysis and sequence stratigraphy is discussed. The potential for biogenic structures to provide valuable information and solve problems in a wide range of fields is also highlighted. An invaluable resource for researchers and graduate students in paleontology, sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy, this book will also be of interest to industry professionals working in petroleum geoscience.

Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time

Stelios Katsanevakis*, Inger Wallentinus, Argyro Zenetos, Erkki Leppakoski, Melih Ertan Cinar, Bayram Ozturk, Michal Grabowski, Daniel Golani and Ana Cristina Cardoso European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES), Ispra, Italy Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Ag. Kosmas, Greece Department of Biosciences, Environmental and Marine Biology, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey Faculty of Fisheries, Marine Biology Laboratory, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey Department of Invertebrate Zoology & Hydrobiology, University of Lodz, Poland Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and the National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel

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Impacts of invasive alien marine species on ecosystem services and biodiversity: a pan-European review.

Sedimentation is a widespread and increasing process on most rocky coasts. The literature on its effects is reviewed and support is found for the general conclusion that sedimen- tation is an important ecological factor for hard bottom organisms. Sediments deeply affect the composition, structure and dynamics of rocky coast assemblages, and increased sediment load as a consequence of anthropogenic activities can be a threat to their diversity and functioning. Sediments that accumulate on rocky substrata are important agents of stress and disturbance. They can cause burial, scour and profound modifications to the characteristics of the bottom surface, and interact with other important physical and biological processes. The effects of sedi- mentation are complex, because they involve both direct outcomes on settlement, recruitment, growth or survival of individual species and indirect outcomes through mediation of competitive and/or predator-prey interactions. Not all species and assemblages are equally affected by sedi- mentation and responses vary over space and time, depending on the characteristics of the depo- sitional environment, life histories of species and the stage of development of individuals and assemblages, and in relation to variable physical factors, including hydrodynamics, light intens- ity and bottom topography. Recent studies have much improved our ability to detect and under- stand the effects of sedimentation on rocky coast assemblages. However, little is still known about the underlying mechanisms. Overall, our present ability to make generalisations and pre- dictions is limited by a paucity of quantitative and experimental research, and by the scant atten- tion devoted to measuring the regime of perturbation by sediments and responses of organisms at relevant spatial and temporal scales. Predicting the magnitude of the effects that different sed- imentation regimes have on rocky coast organisms and the critical levels above which detrimen- tal effects become manifest remains a key issue for the ecology of rocky coasts and a challenge for future studies.

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The effects of sedimentation on rocky coast assemblages

This study documents measured radon concentration levels in Coves de Campanet, a touristic cave from Mallorca (Spain). The mean annual concentration at eight different locations within the cave varied between 644.37 and 1,694.40 Bq m−3. As expected, a seasonal variation was observed, with higher radon levels during summer and lower values during the winter season. The integrated measurements were confirmed by continuous radon monitoring in two selected locations. The effective dose expected to be received by tour guides within the cave ranged from 0.72 to 1.89 mSv y−1 with an annual dose of 1.23 mSv y−1.

Radon concentration and effective dose assessment in Coves de Campanet (Mallorca Island, Spain)

Les microformes de meteorització del litoral calcari de Mallorca: aproximació a la seva sistematització

EnglishPhreatic speleotherns forrn today at the surface of the brackish pools existing inside littoral caves of Mallorca island (Spain); their occurrence directly identifies the height of the sea level at the time of carbonate deposition. Therefore, ancient phreatic speleothems can be used to reconstruct Mediterranean fluctuations during the Pleistocene, since many raised alignments of these deposits are present in several caves of the studied area. Some phreatic speleothems have been dated using the Th/U method in order to determine the position of the sea level during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene. Three high sea-stands have been recognized at different heights -bemeen 1.4 and 2.5 meters above current sea level- in caves located in various sectors of the eastern coast of Mallorca. They date back to around 83, 108 and 124 ka B P and can be related to several minor events within stage 5 of the marine oxygen isotope record. Some mineralogical data about the analyzed samples are also included in this paper. Differences in height of about 1 meter can be observed in samples corresponding to the same sea paleolevel. Those which are particularly well-documented pertain to substage 5e, with higher elevations towards the northernmost localities. These altimetrical disturbances could be explained in terms of a tectonic tilt of the investigated area. catalaActualment es possible constatar la formacio d'espeleotemes freatics en la superficie dels llacs salobrosos de nombroses coves costaneres de I'illa de Mallorca (Espanya); la seva presencia registra amb precisio I'altura mitjana del nivell mari en el moment de la deposicio d'aquests carbonats freatics. Per tant, els diposits antics d'espeleotemes freatics poden ser utilitzats per a reconstruir les fluctuacions de la Mediterrania durant el Pleistoce ja que existeixen, en diverses coves de l'area en estudi, abundants alineacions elevades d'aquests espeleotemes que delimiten paleonivells assolits per les aigues freatiques. S'han datat alguns espeleotemes freatics, usant el metode ThIU, amb la intencio de determinar la posicio del nivell mari durant el Pleistoce mitja i superior. Han estat reconegudes tres estabilitzacions altes de la Mediterrania a diferents altures -entre 1,4 i 2,5 metres per damunt de I'actual nivell de fa mar- en coves localitzades en distints sectors de la costa oriental de Mallorca. Les esmentades estabilitzacions es remunten a edats entorn dels 83, 108 i 124 ka B.P. i poden ser relacionades amb diversos events menors dins de I'estadi 5 del registre mari d'isotops d'oxigen. Aixi mateix, s'inclouen en aquesta nota algunes dades mineralogiques sobre els espeleotemes datats. Es poden observar diferencies d'altura de fins 1 metre en mostres pertanyents al mateix paleonivell mari. Hi son particularment ben documentades les'corresponents al subestadi isotopic 5e, el qual es presenta registrat a altituds majors en les localitats mes septentrionals. Aquestes anomalies altimetriques han de ser explicades en base a una deformacio tectonica recent de I'area investigada.

Dataciones Th/U de espeleotemas freáticos controlados por el nivel marino, procedentes de cuevas costeras de Mallorca (España)

Se presenta una relacion de 222 dias con lluvias de barro observadas en Palma de Mallorca (Mediterraneo Occidental) desde 1979. La serie presenta una tendencia creciente, y los casos se dan preferentemente en la mitad mas calida del ano. Se han estudiado las situaciones meteorologicas asociadas a este fenomeno, que combinan adveccion calida del sur en niveles bajos con sudoestes asociados a una depresion o vaguada en la troposfera media. Las muestras estudiadas presentan una textura limosa, y se componen principalmente de cuarzo y calcita. En unas pocas ocasiones se ha observado precipitacion de barro seco en forma de esferulas, que han debido formarse por evaporacion total de las gotas de la lluvia de barro durante su caida.

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Joan J. Fornós

Papers

Radon concentration and effective dose assessment in Coves de Campanet (Mallorca Island, Spain)

Les microformes de meteorització del litoral calcari de Mallorca: aproximació a la seva sistematització

Dataciones Th/U de espeleotemas freáticos controlados por el nivel marino, procedentes de cuevas costeras de Mallorca (España)

Las lluvias de barro en el Mediterráneo Occidental: el caso de Mallorca

Millennial-scale climate variability recorded in Late Pleistocene coastal deposits of Formentera Island (Balearic Archipelago, Western Mediterranean)