A central concern about immigration is the integration into the labour market, not only of the first generation but also of subsequent generations. Little comparative work exists for Europe’s largest economies. France, Germany and the UK have all become, perhaps unwittingly, countries with large immigrant populations albeit with very different ethnic compositions. Today, the descendants of these immigrants live and work in their parents destination countries. This article presents and discusses comparative evidence on the performance of first and second-generation immigrants in these countries in terms of education, earnings and employment. It is widely believed that many European countries have a serious problem with the integration of immigrants and their children (LEED, 2006). Many Northern European countries have accumulated sizeable populations of immigrants but the lack of longterm strategies and policies to integrate these into societal structures and the labour market is often cited as one reason for social and economic exclusion of the children of these immigrants. In the past decade, Southern European countries such as Spain and Italy have experienced similar, if not larger, immigrations than the large Northern European economies France, Germany and the UK in the late 1950s to early 1970s. Again, it seems that there is little thought devoted to long-term strategies for immigrants and their descendants. The experience of those countries that had large-scale immigration in the last half of the twentieth century should be of importance for devising future immigration and integration policies. However, there is rather little hard evidence in the literature about the relative position of immigrants and their descendants in these countries, in a manner that allows comparisons to be made. In this article, we aim to provide a comparative study of a number of outcomes (education, earnings and employment) of both first and second-generation immigrants of different origins in the three largest European economies: France, Germany and the UK.

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The Economic Situation of First and Second‐Generation Immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom*

The United Kingdom was one of only three countries to allow migrants from accession countries to enter their labour markets more or less without restriction following European Union enlargement in May 2004. Therefore, it is important to establish the characteristics and labour market performance of migrants from these countries who have subsequently entered the United Kingdom. We principally analyse Labour Force Survey data to compare the labour market outcomes of recent migrants from Poland and other accession countries to those of earlier migrant cohorts from these countries as well as to those of other recent migrants to the United Kingdom. We find that the majority of post-enlargement migrants from the new member states have found employment in low paying jobs, despite some (especially Poles) possessing relatively high levels of education. It follows that recent Polish migrants typically have lower returns to their education than other recent arrivals. Migrants from the new member states who arrived immediately prior to enlargement have similar characteristics and labour market outcomes, apart from displaying a higher propensity to be self-employed. These results are discussed in the context of policy changes, migration strategies, assimilation effects and possible impacts on the sending countries.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2008.00500.x

Poles Apart?: EU Enlargement and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants in the United Kingdom

The UK was one of only three countries to allow migrants from accession countries to enter their labour markets more or less without restriction following EU enlargement in May 2004. Therefore, it is important to establish the characteristics and labour market performance of migrants from these countries who have subsequently entered the UK. We principally analyse Labour Force Survey data to compare the labour market outcomes of recent migrants from Poland and other accession countries to those of earlier migrant cohorts from these countries as well as to those of other recent migrants to the UK. We find that the majority of post-enlargement migrants from accession countries have found employment in low paying jobs, despite some (especially Poles) having relatively high levels of education. It follows that recent Polish migrants typically have lower returns to their education than other recent arrivals. Migrants from the new entrants who arrived immediately prior to enlargement possess similar characteristics and labour market outcomes, apart from having a higher propensity to be self-employed. These results are discussed in the context of policy changes, migration strategies, assimilation effects and possible impacts on the sending countries.

/pdf/poles-apart-eu-enlargement-and-the-labour-market-outcomes-of-5fb4m1tgct.pdf

Poles Apart? EU Enlargement and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants in the UK

Part I: 1. Introduction 2. A theory of immigrant conflict Part II: 3. Patterns of immigrant conflict in Great Britain 4. Dynamics of racist violence Part III: 5. Immigrant-native conflict in two London boroughs 6. Two faces of immigrant conflict in two Midlands cities Part IV: 7. Economic integration, political exclusion, and immigrant conflict in Germany 8. Immigration and conflict across countries 9. Conclusion.

Immigration and Conflict in Europe

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The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities contains useful information about the language ability of Britain's non–whites as well as a wealth of comparative information for whites. The paper attempts to establish how much of the lower unemployment and higher earnings enjoyed by whites is the result of a comparative advantage in language. Language is shown to contribute to a part of the non–white disadvantage, but after language effects are removed non–whites males still have higher unemployment rates and lower earnings. Language disadvantage among non–white females leads to higher inactivity rates rather than more unemployment.

The Impact of Language Ability on Employment and Earnings of Britain's Ethnic Communities

The declining employment fortunes of Britain's non-white communities, relative to whites, are explained. To achieve this comparison, some historical official sources of unemployment data are reviewed. The earliest known official time series on unemployment of non-whites dates back to 1960. This historical context is explored, especially the reluctance to make the early data more widely known. An unemployment series for non-white males and females from 1970 to 1999 is derived in two separate ways by splicing together official sources. These series are compared with unemployment of whites to demonstrate a relative increase in unemployment of non-whites.

Decline and fall: Unemployment among Britain's non-white ethnic communities 1960-1999

US and British unemployment rates for non-white males and females are compared
over the period 1970±1998. Whereas US rates remained fairly steady, there was a
marked increase in British non-white unemployment rates. The reasons for this poor
performance, relative to the good performance of US non-whites are explored. It is
shown that non-white unemployment behaves in di� erent ways across the two
countries. For example, British rates rise faster in a recession than white rates,
whereas US rates appear not to follow this British hypercyclical pattern.

Joanne Lindley

Papers

The Impact of Language Ability on Employment and Earnings of Britain's Ethnic Communities

Decline and fall: Unemployment among Britain's non-white ethnic communities 1960-1999

Who did worse? a comparison of US and British non–white unemployment 1970–1998