A selective review of research highlights the emerging view of groups as information processors. In this review, the authors include research on processing objectives, attention, encoding, storage, retrieval, processing, response, feedback, and learning in small interacting task groups. The groups as information processors perspective underscores several characteristic dimensions of variability in group performance of cognitive tasks, namely, commonality-uniqueness of information, convergence-diversity of ideas, accentuation-attenuation of cognitive processes, and belongingness-distinctiveness of members. A combination of contributions framework provides an additional conceptualization of information processing in groups. The authors also address implications, caveats, and questions for future research and theory regarding groups as information processors.

The Emerging Conceptualization of Groups as Information Processors

Computer-Mediated Communication and Group Decision Making: A Meta-Analysis

The authors examine the predictors of ad avoidance in four media: magazines, newspapers, radio, and television. A national survey of 946 adults found that ad avoidance is most prevalent for television and magazines. The predictor variables were demographic characteristics, media-related variables, attitudes toward advertising in each medium, and communication problems related to advertising. Ad perceptions were the strongest predictors of ad avoidance and were best in differentiating print from broadcast media. The results indicate that age and income were the best demographic predictors across media. Breadth of media use was an important broadcast media predictor. Among the communication problems considered, search hinderance had the greatest effect on ad avoidance.

Predictors of Advertising Avoidance in Print and Broadcast Media

Communication is increasingly recognized as an important process in organizational crisis and crisis management. The Three Mile Island incident, the Bhopal Union Carbide accident, the crash of Northwest Airlines Flight 255, and the Exxon Valdez oil spill can all be described as specific, unexpected, and nonroutine events or series of events that created high levels of uncertainty and threat or perceived threat to an organization’s high-priority goals. Crises disrupt employees and communities, damage corporate reputations, and cost hundreds of millions of dollars. Crises also serve as the impetus for investigations and organizational change. This review organizes a dynamic and growing body of communication and organizational literature dealing with crisis, including various developmental approaches used to describe crisis, decision making, public relations, rhetorical approaches, organizational legitimacy, and methodologies for crisis communication research. Research themes and new directions are identifie...

Communication, Organization, and Crisis

A thorough understanding of how businesses gain and maintain long-term relationships with clients is critical in today’s environment. This study develops a scale for salesperson listening behavior and investigates the impact of customers’ perceptions of salespeople’s listening behavior on trust, satisfaction, and anticipation of future interaction. A structural equations model is developed and empirically tested using a sample of new car buyers. The research results suggest that listening is a higher-order construct composed of three dimensions: (a) sensing, (b) evaluating, and (c) responding. When customers perceive a high level of listening behavior by a salesperson, it enhances their trust in the salesperson and leads to greater anticipation of future interaction. Implications and future research issues are discussed.

Listening to your customers: The impact of perceived salesperson listening behavior on relationship outcomes

Small group communication studies of the 1980s were classified and critiqued as representing seven lines of research. Four research trends were identified and evaluated. Three new theories and several important group communication models were developed during the decade. In addition, new methodologies and contextual settings for the study of small group communication were advanced.

Small group communication research of the 1970's: A synthesis and critique

All chapters conclude with "Summary." 1.Introduction to Communication Theory. Overview. The Communication Metatheory (TCM). 2.Information Systems Theory. Viewing the General Communication Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing Its Usefulness. 3.Rational Argumentation Theory (RAT). Viewing the General Communication Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing its Usefulness. 4.Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT). Viewing the General Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing Its Usefulness. 5.Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT). Viewing the General Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing Its Usefulness. 6.Narrative Paradigm Theory (NPT). Viewing the General Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing Its Usefulness. 7.Diffusion of Innovations Theory (DIT). Viewing the General Theory. Introducing the Theoretical Concepts. Working with Its Qualitative Method. Observing Its Usefulness. 8.Interpersonal and Small Group Communication Context Theories. Interpersonal Communication Context Theories. Small Group Communication Context Theories. 9.Public Speaking and Organizational Communication Context Theories. Public Speaking Communication Context Theories. Organizational Communication Context Theories. 10.Mass and Intercultural Communication Context Theories. Mass Communication Context Theories. Intercultural Communication Context Theories. 11.Communication Microtheories. Basic Concept Microtheories. Message Structure Microtheories. Dynamic Structure Microtheories. Communicator and Medium Structure Microtheories. Evaluative Microtheories. 12.Capstone. Finding the Communication Rosetta Stone. Growing Communication Daisies and Other Flowers. Viewing the Communication Field of Flowers. Peddling Our Communication Flowers. The Last Bouquet. Endnotes. References. Theory Glossary. Name Index. Subject Index.

Understanding Communication Theory: The Communicative Forces for Human Action

This study focuses on the expansion of the rhetorical vision component of Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT). The Cold War rhetorical vision serves as a paradigm case illustrating the emerging theory of group consciousness that is part of SCT. Through this extended example, we explain that, prior to their decline and terminus, three streams of communication (consciousness creating, consciousness raising and consciousness sustaining) characterize the life cycle of a rhetorical vision. We also demonstrate that rhetorical visions exist along at least four continua and that a number of distinct rhetorical principles operate in the creation, development, maturity and decline of a rhetorical vision.

An Expansion of the Rhetorical Vision Component of the Symbolic Convergence Theory: The Cold War Paradigm Case.

This case study reports on the employment of Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT) to intervene in a corporate environment in a strategic planning situation. The study concerns the use of SCT to guide corporate positioning, market segmentation, and advertising and sales message testing. The report sets out SCT's assumptions and technical terms, summarizes the relevant research undergirding the SCT theory‐method‐message complex, describes the strategic planning intervention, illustrates the research findings, and draws out both the applied and theoretical implications of the case.

The use of symbolic convergence theory in corporate strategic planning: A case study

For 30 years, good fortune has enabled us to contribute to the development of symbolic convergence theory (SCT). SCT is a general theory of communication that helps explain broad aspects of interpersonal, small group, public, organizational, mass, and intercultural communication. SCT explains the communicative force of fantasy-sharing on human action as stemming from its ability to forge a symbolic consciousness that is constitutive of reality. In this chapter, we first depict SCT’s heuristic value. Next, we highlight its historical development and grounding research. Then, we set out its anatomical elements providing a clear view of the relationship among its 18 technical concepts. Specifically, we highlight its basic, message, dynamic, communicator, medium, and evaluative concepts. Then, we depict its utility by describing its use in solving real-world problems ranging from physician recruitment to relationship building to creating a new corporate identity and culture. Thereupon, we synthesize the answe...

John F. Cragan

Papers

Small group communication research of the 1970's: A synthesis and critique

Understanding Communication Theory: The Communicative Forces for Human Action

An Expansion of the Rhetorical Vision Component of the Symbolic Convergence Theory: The Cold War Paradigm Case.

The use of symbolic convergence theory in corporate strategic planning: A case study

Three Decades of Developing, Grounding, and Using Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT)