Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

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Modern Applied Statistics With S

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is an independent organization devoted to the development of standards.

American Society for Testing and Materials

Human-dominated marine ecosystems are experiencing accelerating loss of populations and species, with largely unknown consequences. We analyzed local experiments, long-term regional time series, and global fisheries data to test how biodiversity loss affects marine ecosystem services across temporal and spatial scales. Overall, rates of resource collapse increased and recovery potential, stability, and water quality decreased exponentially with declining diversity. Restoration of biodiversity, in contrast, increased productivity fourfold and decreased variability by 21%, on average. We conclude that marine biodiversity loss is increasingly impairing the ocean's capacity to provide food, maintain water quality, and recover from perturbations. Yet available data suggest that at this point, these trends are still reversible.

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Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services.

Investigations of the role of competition, predation and abiotic stress in shaping natural communities were a staple for previous generations of ecologists and are still popular themes. However, more recent experimental research has uncovered the largely unanticipated, yet striking influence of facilitation (i.e. positive species interactions) on the organization of terrestrial and aquatic communities. Modern ecological concepts and theories were well established a decade before the current renaissance of interest in facilitation began, and thus do not consider the importance of a wide variety of facilitative interactions. It is time to bring ecological theory up to date by including facilitation. This process will not be painless because it will fundamentally change many basic predictions and will challenge some of our most cherished paradigms. But, ultimately, revising ecological theory will lead to a more accurate and inclusive understanding of natural communities.

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Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory

▪ Abstract Estimates of global wetland area range from 5.3 to 12.8 million km2. About half the global wetland area has been lost, but an international treaty (the 1971 Ramsar Convention) has helped 144 nations protect the most significant remaining wetlands. Because most nations lack wetland inventories, changes in the quantity and quality of the world's wetlands cannot be tracked adequately. Despite the likelihood that remaining wetlands occupy less than 9% of the earth's land area, they contribute more to annually renewable ecosystem services than their small area implies. Biodiversity support, water quality improvement, flood abatement, and carbon sequestration are key functions that are impaired when wetlands are lost or degraded. Restoration techniques are improving, although the recovery of lost biodiversity is challenged by invasive species, which thrive under disturbance and displace natives. Not all damages to wetlands are reversible, but it is not always clear how much can be retained through re...

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Wetland resources : Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability

Wetlands seem to be especially vulnerable to invasions. Even though ≤6% of the earth's land mass is wetland, 24% (8 of 33) of the world's most invasive plants are wetland species. Furthermore, many wetland invaders form monotypes, which alter habitat structure, lower biodiversity (both number and “quality” of species), change nutrient cycling and productivity (often increasing it), and modify food webs. Wetlands are landscape sinks, which accumulate debris, sediments, water, and nutrients, all of which facilitate invasions by creating canopy gaps or accelerating the growth of opportunistic plant species. These and other disturbances to wetlands, such as propagule influx, salt influx, and hydroperiod alteration, create opportunities that are well matched by wetland opportunists. No single hypothesis or plant attribute explains all wetland invasions, but the propensity for wetlands to become dominated by invasive monotypes is arguably an effect of the cumulative impacts associated with landscape sinks, incl...

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Causes and Consequences of Invasive Plants in Wetlands: Opportunities, Opportunists, and Outcomes

It takes more than water to restore a wetland. Now, scientists are documenting how landscape setting, habitat type, hydrological regime, soil properties, topography, nutrient supplies, disturbance regimes, invasive species, seed banks and declining biodiversity can constrain the restoration process. Although many outcomes can be explained post hoc, we have little ability to predict the path that sites will follow when restored in alternative ways, and no insurance that specific targets will be met. To become predictive, bolder approaches are now being developed, which rely more on field experimentation at multiple spatial and temporal scales, and in many restoration contexts.

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Progress in wetland restoration ecology

In the Upper Midwestern region of the US, three ecosystem services (flood abatement, water quality improvement, and biodiversity support) declined when about 60% of the region's historical wetland area was drained, mostly for agriculture. Some of the lost services could potentially be regained through wetland restoration measures authorized in the 2002 Farm Bill. Because no single wetland can provide all ecosystem services indefinitely, ecologists can help to identify combinations of projects that will best restore ecosystem services within watersheds. “Strategic” restoration would use an adaptive management approach, targeting former wetlands with marginal crop production, and prioritizing the location, size, and type of wetland needed for a watershed to provide optimal levels of all three services. Given that the Farm Bill includes over $1 billion per year to conserve natural resources on agricultural lands, we are in an excellent position to increase the effectiveness of wetland restoration.

Wetlands at your service: reducing impacts of agriculture at the watershed scale

Hypothetical models in the scientific literature suggest that ecosystem restoration and creation sites follow a smooth path of development (called a trajectory), rapidly matching natural reference sites (the target). Multi-million-dollar mitigation agreements have been based on the expectation that damages to habitat will be compensated within 5‐10 years, and monitoring periods have been set accordingly. Our San Diego Bay study site, the Sweetwater Marsh National Wildlife Refuge, has one of the longest and most detailed records of habitat development at a mitigation site: data on soil organic matter, soil nitrogen, plant growth, and plant canopies for up to 10 years from a 12-year-old site. High interannual variation and lack of directional changes indicate little chance that targets will be reached in the near future. Other papers perpetuate the trajectory model, despite data that corroborate our findings. After reviewing “trajectory models” and presenting our comprehensive data for the first time, we suggest alternative management and mitigation policies.

Joy B. Zedler

Papers

Wetland resources : Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability

Causes and Consequences of Invasive Plants in Wetlands: Opportunities, Opportunists, and Outcomes

Progress in wetland restoration ecology

Wetlands at your service: reducing impacts of agriculture at the watershed scale

Tracking Wetland Restoration : Do Mitigation Sites Follow Desired Trajectories?