Summary
Deposits produced by microbial growth and metabolism have been important components of carbonate sediments since the Archaean. Geologically best known in seas and lakes, microbial carbonates are also important at the present day in fluviatile, spring, cave and soil environments. The principal organisms involved are bacteria, particularly cyanobacteria, small algae and fungi, that participate in the growth of microbial biofilms and mats. Grain-trapping is locally important, but the key process is precipitation, producing reefal accumulations of calcified microbes and enhancing mat accretion and preservation. Various metabolic processes, such as photosynthetic uptake of CO2 and/or HCO3– by cyanobacteria, and ammonification, denitrification and sulphate reduction by other bacteria, can increase alkalinity and stimulate carbonate precipitation. Extracellular polymeric substances, widely produced by microbes for attachment and protection, are important in providing nucleation sites and facilitating sediment trapping.

Microbial carbonate microfabrics are heterogeneous. They commonly incorporate trapped particles and in situ algae and invertebrates, and crystals form around bacterial cells, but the main component is dense, clotted or peloidal micrite resulting from calcification of bacterial cells, sheaths and biofilm, and from phytoplankton-stimulated whiting nucleation. Interpretation of these texturally convergent and often inscrutable fabrics is a challenge. Conspicuous accumulations are large domes and columns with laminated (stromatolite), clotted (thrombolite) and other macrofabrics, which may be either agglutinated or mainly composed of calcified or spar-encrusted microbes. Stromatolite lamination appears to be primary, but clotted thrombolite fabrics can be primary or secondary. Microbial precipitation also contributes to hot-spring travertine, cold-spring mound, calcrete, cave crust and coated grain deposits, as well as influencing carbonate cementation, recrystallization and replacement. Microbial carbonate is biologically stimulated but also requires favourable saturation state in ambient water, and thus relies uniquely on a combination of biotic and abiotic factors. This overriding environmental control is seen at the present day by the localization of microbial carbonates in calcareous streams and springs and in shallow tropical seas, and in the past by temporal variation in abundance of marine microbial carbonates. Patterns of cyanobacterial calcification and microbial dome formation through time appear to reflect fluctuations in seawater chemistry.

Stromatolites appeared at ∼3450 Ma and were generally diverse and abundant from 2800 to 1000 Ma. Inception of a Proterozoic decline variously identified at 2000, 1000 and 675 Ma, has been attributed to eukaryote competition and/or reduced lithification. Thrombolites and dendrolites mainly formed by calcified cyanobacteria became important early in the Palaeozoic, and reappeared in the Late Devonian. Microbial carbonates retained importance through much of the Mesozoic, became scarcer in marine environments in the Cenozoic, but locally re-emerged as large agglutinated domes, possibly reflecting increased algal involvement, and thick micritic reef crusts in the late Neogene. Famous modern examples at Shark Bay and Lee Stocking Island are composite coarse agglutinated domes and columns with complex bacterial–algal mats occurring in environments that are both stressed and current-swept: products of mat evolution, ecological refugia, sites of enhanced early lithification or all three?

Microbial carbonates: the geological record of the calcified bacterial-algal mats and biofilms

Marine vegetated habitats occupy a small fraction of the ocean surface, but contribute about 50% of the carbon that is buried in marine sediments. In this Review the potential benefits of conservation, restoration and use of these habitats for coastal protection and climate change mitigation are assessed. Marine vegetated habitats (seagrasses, salt-marshes, macroalgae and mangroves) occupy 0.2% of the ocean surface, but contribute 50% of carbon burial in marine sediments. Their canopies dissipate wave energy and high burial rates raise the seafloor, buffering the impacts of rising sea level and wave action that are associated with climate change. The loss of a third of the global cover of these ecosystems involves a loss of CO2 sinks and the emission of 1 Pg CO2 annually. The conservation, restoration and use of vegetated coastal habitats in eco-engineering solutions for coastal protection provide a promising strategy, delivering significant capacity for climate change mitigation and adaption.

The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation

An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe: 0-13000 Years Ago, and The Overlay Maps.

Palaeoclimate interpretation of stable isotope data from lake sediment archives

To understand the importance of plants in structuring the vertical distributions of soil nutrients, we explored nutrient distributions in the top meter of soil for more than 10,000 profiles across a range of ecological conditions. Hypothesizing that vertical nutrient distributions are dominated by plant cycling relative to leaching, weathering dissolution, and atmospheric deposition, we examined three predictions: (1) that the nutrients that are most limiting for plants would have the shallowest average distributions across ecosystems, (2) that the vertical distribution of a limiting nutrient would be shallower as the nutrient became more scarce, and (3) that along a gradient of soil types with increasing weathering-leaching intensity, limiting nutrients would be relatively more abundant due to preferential cycling by plants. Globally, the ranking of vertical distributions among nutrients was shallowest to deepest in the following order: P > K > Ca > Mg > Na = Cl = SO4. Nutrients strongly cycled by plants, such as P and K, were more concentrated in the topsoil (upper 20 cm) than were nutrients usually less limiting for plants such as Na and Cl. The topsoil concentrations of all nutrients except Na were higher in the soil profiles where the elements were more scarce. Along a gradient of weathering-leaching intensity (Aridisols to Mollisols to Ultisols), total base saturation decreased but the relative contribution of exchangeable K C to base saturation increased. These patterns are difficult to explain without considering the upward transport of nutrients by plant uptake and cycling. Shallower distributions for P and K, together with negative associations between abundance and topsoil accumulation, support the idea that plant cycling exerts a dominant control on the vertical distribution of the most limiting elements for plants (those required in high amounts in relation to soil supply). Plant characteristics like tissue stoichiometry, biomass cycling rates, above- and belowground allocation, root distribu- tions, and maximum rooting depth may all play an important role in shaping nutrient profiles. Such vertical patterns yield insight into the patterns and processes of nutrient cycling through time.

The distribution of soil nutrients with depth: Global patterns and the imprint of plants

Palaeoclimatic records from stable isotopes in riverine tufas: Synthesis and review

Stable carbon isotopes and C/N ratios of particulate organic matter (POM) in suspended solids, surficial sediments and sediment cores were used to define the spatial and temporal variability of POM in a poorly flushed, urbanized, eutrophic tropical estuary (Hunts Bay, Kingston Harbour, Jamaica). C/N variation in the sediment surface POM is a function of initial suspended particulate organic matter (SPOM) (or other POM) type and the alteration of C/N ratios in the water column or on the sediment surface. The d13CSPOM(-20 to -25‰) values suggest that this material is a mixture of: (1)in situphytoplankton organic matter; (2) terrestrial river-borne SPOM; (3) terrestrial river-borne bottom sediment POM; and (4) sewage. Downcore variation in organic carbon content, C/N and d13Cis attributed mainly to change in the supply rate and type of organic matter. In the NE of Hunts Bay, down core variation in sedimentology and geochemistry are consistent with a change from fully marine to freshwater runoff-dominated sedimentation with increasing organic matter input from sewage in recent times. Despite large overlaps in the C/N and d13Corg‘ end-members ’ pollutant POM, in this case sewage, was the only source which could account for the amount of POM deposited, the surface sediment C/N and d13Corgvalues and the trajectories of evolution in C/N andd13Corgvalues in cores. The data show that the combinedd13C and C/N successfully identifies the source, fate and history of POM even in a poorly-mixed estuary.

Combined Carbon Isotope and C/N Ratios as Indicators of Source and Fate of Organic Matter in a Poorly Flushed, Tropical Estuary: Hunts Bay, Kingston Harbour, Jamaica

The stable isotope record of environmental and climatic signals in modern terrestrial microbial carbonates from Europe

List of boxes Preface Acknowledgements Symbols and abbreviations IntroductionThe AtmosphereTerrestrial EnvironmentsThe OceansGlobal Change Appendices Index

An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry

Many Recent and fossil freshwater tufa stromatolites contain millimetre-scale, alternating laminae of dense micrite and more porous or sparry crystalline calcites. These alternating laminae have been interpreted to represent seasonally controlled differences in the biotic activity of microbes, and/or seasonally controlled changes in the rate of calcification. Either way, couplets of these microbially mediated alternating calcified laminae are generally agreed to represent annual seasonality. Combined stable isotope (d18O and d13C) and trace element (Mg, Sr, Ba) geochemistry from Recent tufa stromatolites show that seasonal climatic information is available from these calcites. Variability in d18O (and in one case Mg concentration) has been shown to be controlled primarily by stream temperature change, usually driven by solar insolation. In arid climates, seasonal evaporation can also cause d18O enrichment by at least 1‰. Variability in d13C results potentially from: (1) seasonal change in plant uptake of 12C-enriched CO2; (2) seasonal change in degassing of 12C-enriched CO2 in the aquifer system; and (3) precipitation of calcite along the aquifer or river flow path, a process that increases d13C of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the remaining water. Mechanisms 2 and 3 are linked because calcite precipitates in aquifers where degassing occurs, e.g. air pockets. The latter mechanism for d13C enrichment has also been shown to cause sympathetic variation between trace element/Ca ratios and d13C because trace elements with partition coefficients much greater than 1 (e.g. Sr, Ba) remain preferentially in solution. Since degassing in air pockets will be enhanced during decreased recharge when water saturation of the aquifer is lowest, sympathetic variation in trace element/Ca ratios and d13C is a possible index of recharge and therefore precipitation intensity. High-resolution geochemical data from well-dated tufa stromatolites have great potential for Quaternary palaeoclimate reconstructions, possibly allowing recovery of annual seasonal climatic information including water temperature variation and change in rainfall intensity. However, careful consideration of diagenetic effects, particularly aggrading neomorphism, needs to be the next step.

Julian E. Andrews

Papers

Palaeoclimatic records from stable isotopes in riverine tufas: Synthesis and review

Combined Carbon Isotope and C/N Ratios as Indicators of Source and Fate of Organic Matter in a Poorly Flushed, Tropical Estuary: Hunts Bay, Kingston Harbour, Jamaica

The stable isotope record of environmental and climatic signals in modern terrestrial microbial carbonates from Europe

An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry

Seasonal records of climatic change in annually laminated tufas: short review and future prospects