This article presents an expanded model of acculturation among international migrants and their immediate descendants. Acculturation is proposed as a multidimensional process consisting of the confluence among heritage-cultural and receiving-cultural practices, values, and identifications. The implications of this reconceptualization for the acculturation construct, as well as for its relationship to psychosocial and health outcomes, are discussed. In particular, an expanded operationalization of acculturation is needed to address the "immigrant paradox," whereby international migrants with more exposure to the receiving cultural context report poorer mental and physical health outcomes. We discuss the role of ethnicity, cultural similarity, and discrimination in the acculturation process, offer an operational definition for context of reception, and call for studies on the role that context of reception plays in the acculturation process. The new perspective on acculturation presented in this article is intended to yield a fuller understanding of complex acculturation processes and their relationships to contextual and individual functioning.

Rethinking the concept of acculturation: implications for theory and research.

Preface All individuals exist in social, political, historical, and economic contexts, and psychologists are increasingly called upon to understand the influence of these contexts on individuals’ behavior. The “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” reflect the continuing evolution of the study of psychology, changes in society at large, and emerging data about the different needs of particular individuals and groups historically marginalized or disenfranchised within and by psychology based on their ethnic/racial heritage and social group identity or membership. These “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” reflect knowledge and skills needed for the profession in the midst of dramatic historic sociopolitical changes in U.S. society, as well as needs of new constituencies, markets, and clients. The specific goals of these guidelines are to provide psychologists with (a) the rationale and needs for addressing multiculturalism and diversity in education, training, research, practice, and organizational change; (b) basic information, relevant terminology, current empirical research from psychology and related disciplines, and other data that support the proposed guidelines and underscore their importance; (c) references to enhance ongoing education, training, research, practice, and organizational change methodologies; and (d) paradigms that broaden the purview of psychology as a profession.

Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists

The Silent Language

Folkman and Lazarus's theory of stress and coping was used to develop a measure assessing the perceived stress within a bicultural context. Middle school students of Mexican descent (N = 881) reported their perceived stress from intergenerational acculturation gaps, within-group discrimination, out-group discrimination, and monolingual stress. Although immigrant youths reported more total number of stressors, U.S.-born youths reported more stress from needing better Spanish and impact of parents' culture. Immigrant youths reported more stress from needing better English in school. Higher stress was associated with more depressive symptoms for both U.S.-born and immigrant youths. Although this study has identified some elements of stress, it has not identified positive coping mechanisms of the bicultural context for Latino youths.

Stress within a bicultural context for adolescents of Mexican descent.

The primary purpose of this exploratory investigation was to examine self-concealment behaviors and social self-efficacy skills as potential mediators in the relationship between acculturative stress and depression in a sample of 320 African, Asian, and Latin American international college students. The authors found several differences by demography with regard to the study's variables. After controlling for regional group membership, sex, and English language fluency, they found that self-concealment and social self-efficacy did not serve as mediators in the relationship between African, Asian, and Latin American international students' acculturative stress experiences and depressive symptomatology. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Self-concealment, social self-efficacy, acculturative stress, and depression in African, Asian, and Latin American international college students.

Acculturative stress is the psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture. For Hispanics who come to the United States, there are a number of significant stressors that are likely to be pervasive, intense, and lifelong. Counselors need to learn the reality of the Hispanic immigrants and help them adapt to these stressors. This article defines and describes these aspects of acculturative stress.

Acculturative Stress The Experience of the Hispanic Immigrant

This article defines acculturative stress, addressing loss of social support, self-esteem, and identity. Six distinctive differences between immigrants who are White, Protestant, and northern or western European and immigrants who are Hispanic are outlined. Suggestions are given for counseling practice that consider these differences.

Acculturative Stress of Hispanics: Loss and Challenge.

Disability, Society, and the Individual

Because of the increasing number of people with disabilities, counselors of all specialties and theoretical orientations will be called on to provide services to clients with disabilities. The authors present a brief overview of 4 major models of disability to provide an introduction to the varying definitions and causal and responsibility attributions of disability. Viewing the client with a disability as an individual with multiple identities, roles, functions, and environments facilitates the counseling process.

Models of Disability: Implications for the Counseling Profession

Much of the way in which rehabilitation practitioners, educators, and researchers undertake their work is guided by the model of disability to which they subscribe (Harper, 1991; Tate & Pledger, 2003). Models of disability define disability, determine casual and responsibility attributions, influence professional practice, drive payment systems, and guide legislation (Dembo, 1982; Hahn, 1993; Nagi, 1969; Zola, 1989). Models of disability permeate every professional relationship in rehabilitation; these models also serve as the structure for rehabilitation and disability research development, providing the rationale for the funding of large studies. Further, every type of rehabilitation/disability resource allocation has its basis in a model of disability and agency policies and regulations trace their origins to a model of disability (Albrecht, 1981, 1992; Berkowitz, 1987; Bickenbach, 1993; Fox, 1993; Wolfensberger, 1972). Thus, the daily lives of people with disabilities, if and how they are educated, if and where they work, and their social and familial life, in large part are determined by models of disability. Perhaps, most important, models of disability exert a powerful influence on the public perception of disability and the public's response to people with disabilities. Consequently, models of disability have the capacity to shape the self-identity of those with disabilities (Conrad, 2004; Davis, 1997; Hannah & Midlarsky, 1987; Hulnick & Hulnick, 1989; Longmore, 1995; Nagi, 1969). Surprisingly, the power of models of disability is rarely acknowledged or addressed; nor, are these models questioned or challenged (Gill, Kewman, & Brannon, 2003; Harper, 1991; Pledger, 2003). Indeed, most practitioners are only marginally aware that there are other models and that patients/clients/consumers may, and often do, subscribe to a different model. A therapeutic alliance, therefore, is difficult to establish if the professional and client define the disability differently and, as a result, envision different treatments and services. Most practitioners function in the way in which they have been educated and trained (Bauman & Drake, 1997; Bluestone, Stokes, & Kuba, 1996; Gill et al., 2003; Hogben & Waterman, 1997; Kemp & Mallinkrodt, 1996; Parsons, Hernandez, & Jorgensen, 1998). For example, if a practitioner has been trained to view disability as solely a clinical concept, he or she will conceptualize the necessary response to be clinical treatment. Models of disability are the underlying structure for large, complex diagnostic/defining systems, such as the International Classification of Disabilities, Impairments, and Handicaps--2 (ICIDH-2) (WHO, 1993, 2001) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV--Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association, 2000) and the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF, World Heath Organization, 2001). In turn, these diagnostic systems are used not only for clinical purposes but also for research development, and administrative and social planning. Diagnoses, therefore, have profound political, social, and financial consequences (Hahn, 1985; Smart, 2005b). Models provide both casual and responsibility attributions; these attributions determine which academic disciplines study and teach the disability experience. If disability is viewed as only a medical concern, then the cultural, historical, social, and political aspects will not be taught in psychology, sociology, political, science, law, or history curricula. Moreover, most people with disabilities, after medical stabilization has been achieved, consider the social, cultural, and political aspects of the disability experience to be their most important concern (Bowe, 1980; Dembo, 1974; Smart, 2005a, 2005b). However, it is likely that there are few professionals, who possess the adequate background, training and clinical experience to provide these social, cultural, and family support services. …

Julie F. Smart

Papers

Acculturative Stress The Experience of the Hispanic Immigrant

Acculturative Stress of Hispanics: Loss and Challenge.

Disability, Society, and the Individual

Models of Disability: Implications for the Counseling Profession

The Power of Models of Disability