The Biomarkers of Nutrition for Development (BOND) project is designed to provide evidence-based advice to anyone with an interest in the role of nutrition in health. Specifically, the BOND program provides state-of-the-art information and service with regard to selection, use, and interpretation of biomarkers of nutrient exposure, status, function, and effect. To accomplish this objective, expert panels are recruited to evaluate the literature and to draft comprehensive reports on the current state of the art with regard to specific nutrient biology and available biomarkers for assessing nutrients in body tissues at the individual and population level. Phase I of the BOND project includes the evaluation of biomarkers for 6 nutrients: iodine, iron, zinc, folate, vitamin A, and vitamin B-12. This review represents the second in the series of reviews and covers all relevant aspects of folate biology and biomarkers. The article is organized to provide the reader with a full appreciation of folate's history as a public health issue, its biology, and an overview of available biomarkers (serum folate, RBC folate, and plasma homocysteine concentrations) and their interpretation across a range of clinical and population-based uses. The article also includes a list of priority research needs for advancing the area of folate biomarkers related to nutritional health status and development.

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Biomarkers of Nutrition for Development (BOND)-Iron Review.

Iodine status has been historically assessed by palpation of the thyroid and reported as goiter rates. Goiter is a functional biomarker that can be applied to both individuals and populations, but it is subjective. Iodine status is now assessed using an objective biomarker of exposure, i.e., urinary iodine concentrations (UICs) in spot samples and comparison of the median UIC to UIC cut-offs to categorize population status. This has improved standardization, but inappropriate use of the crude proportion of UICs below the cut-off level of 100 µg/L to estimate the number of iodine-deficient children has led to an overestimation of the prevalence of iodine deficiency. In this review, a new approach is proposed in which UIC data are extrapolated to iodine intakes, adjusted for intraindividual variation, and then interpreted using the estimated average requirement cut-point model. This may allow national programs to define the prevalence of iodine deficiency in the population and to quantify the necessary increase in iodine intakes to ensure sufficiency. In addition, thyroglobulin can be measured on dried blood spots to provide an additional sensitive functional biomarker of iodine status.

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Assessment of iodine nutrition in populations: past, present, and future.

Iodine content of food groups

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae are a promising source of protein and lipid for animal feeds. The nutritional composition of the BSF larvae depend partly on the composition of the feeding medium. The BSF lipid profile in part mimics the feeding media lipid profile, and micronutrients, like minerals and vitamins, can readily accumulate in black soldier fly larvae. However, investigative studies on bioconversion and accumulation of nutrients from media to black soldier fly larvae are scarce. Here we show that inclusion of the brown algae Ascophyllum nodosum in the substrate for black soldier fly larvae can introduce valuable nutrients, commonly associated with the marine environment, into the larvae. The omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3), iodine and vitamin E concentrations increased in the larvae when more seaweed was included in the diet. When the feeding media consisted of more than 50% seaweed, the larvae experienced poorer growth, lower nutrient retention and lower lipid levels, compared to a pure plant based feeding medium. Our results confirm the plasticity of the nutritional make-up of black soldier fly larvae, allowing it to accumulate both lipid- and water-soluble compounds. A broader understanding of the effect of the composition of the feeding media on the larvae composition can help to tailor black soldier fly larvae into a nutrient profile more suited for specific feed or food purposes.

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Modulation of nutrient composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae by feeding seaweed-enriched media

BACKGROUND
The objectives of this study were to examine protein and amino acid composition, lipid and fatty acid composition, along with a range of essential minerals in common Norwegian seaweed species representing the red (Palmaria palmata and Vertebrata lanosa), green (Cladophora rupestris, Enteromorpha intestinalis and Ulva lactuca) and brown (Alaria esculenta, Laminaria digitata, Laminaria hyperborea, Fucus vesiculosus and Pelvetia canaliculata) classes and assess their potential as alternatives to cereals in food and feed. As macroalgae accumulate heavy metals, arsenic, cadmium and mercury were also analyzed.

RESULTS
Proteins ranged from 34 to 123 g kg−1 dry weight (DW) and the essential amino acid levels may cover both human and salmonid requirements. Lipids were low (6–58 g kg−1 DW), but the red algae had high relative content of long-chained omega-3 fatty acids (32–34 % of the fatty acids). Iodine contents were particularly high in the Laminaria species. Of the heavy metals only arsenic levels may be of concern.

CONCLUSION
In total, the red alga P. palmata was regarded as the best alternative to cereals in food and feed. For several of the other species, single-component extraction for the ingredients market may be better than using the whole product. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

Characterization of protein, lipid and mineral contents in common Norwegian seaweeds and evaluation of their potential as food and feed

A method was developed for determination of total iodine content in different standard reference materials (SRMs) and seafood products by inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry (ICP/MS). If iodine is present as iodide and nitric acid is used in the wet digestion system, the observed signal is not stable when iodine is measured by ICP/MS at m/z 127. To stabilize the iodine signal, 3% ammonia solution (1 + 1, v/v) was added to the digest. The limit of quantitation of the method, defined as 6 times the standard deviation in the blank solution (n = 20) was estimated to be 15 mg/kg (using 0.2 g dry mass and a dilution factor of 50). The precision, expressed as repeatability of the iodine concentration, varied between 3.2 and 12% in SRMs, with concentrations of 4.70-0.17 mg/kg dry matter. The described method was compared with a method using tetramethylammonium hydroxide extraction. Both methods showed good precision and trueness by analyses of SRMs. The 2 methods were used to determine iodine in seafood from the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the North Sea. The results showed great variation between different fish species as well as between individuals within a species. The lowest values of iodine were recorded in muscle of ling (Molva molva) with a mean of 0.07 mg/kg fresh weight and a variation between 0.03 and 0.11 mg/kg fresh weight. The highest values were found in cod (Gadus morhua) from the Barents Sea, with a mean of 2.5 mg/kg and a variation between 0.7 and 12.7 mg/kg fresh weight.

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Karen Eckhoff

Papers

Determination of iodine in seafood by inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry.