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The palm oil industry generates significant amounts of solid wastes. The solid wastes, also known as oil palm biomass, includes the trunk (OPT) and fronds (OPT) from the plantation, and empty fruit bunch (EFB), mesocarp fibre (MF) and palm kernel shell (PKS) from the processing mills. Oil palm biomass is not effectively recycled for other applications, and existing disposal practices can cause adverse impacts on the environment. As oil palm biomass is a readily available lignocellulosic biomass, it has the potential to be a low-cost feedstock for conversion into higher value products. The first part of this study provides a comprehensive review of utilisation of oil palm biomass for the production of biofuels, chemicals and biomaterials through direct utilisation and physical conversion, biochemical conversion, thermochemical conversion and synthesis of lignin-based materials. The second part of this study discusses the opportunity for biorefinery development based on existing bioproducts from oil palm biomass, for the production of advanced fuels and platform chemicals that have not been explored in oil palm biomass research. This study proposes integrated biorefinery concepts via the integration of existing oil palm biomass biorefinery products with thermochemical process for upgrading the bioproducts into higher values products. The high-value products integrated biorefinery products include advanced biofuels, fuel additives and platform chemicals. The integrated biorefinery development for oil palm biomass processing is expected to improve the economics of the production of biomass-derived renewable energy and enhance the sustainability of palm oil industry.

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The outlook of the production of advanced fuels and chemicals from integrated oil palm biomass biorefinery

An investigation on diffusion bonding of aluminum and magnesium using a Ni interlayer

Characterisation of microcrystalline cellulose from oil palm fibres for food applications

Transient liquid phase diffusion bonding Al-6061 using nano-dispersed Ni coatings

The tribological performance of a nanocrystalline coating is heavily influenced by its composition, morphology, and microstructural characteristics. This research work describes the effect of heat treatment temperature on the microstructural, morphological, and mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline Ni/TiO2 coatings produced by electrophoresis. The surface morphology and coating cross section were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The composition of coatings and the percentage of TiO2 nanoparticles incorporated in the Ni matrix were studied and estimated by using an energy-dispersive spectroscopic (EDS) analysis, while x-ray diffractometry (XRD) was used to investigate the effect of heat treatment temperature on phase structure. The results showed agglomeration of TiO2 nanoparticles on the surface of the coating. The high hardness and wear resistance recorded for the as-deposited coating was attributed to the uniform distribution of TiO2 nanoparticle clusters throughout the cross section of the coating. Heat treatment of the Ni/TiO2 coatings to temperatures above 200 °C led to significant grain growth that changed the surface morphology of the coating and reduced the strengthening effects of the nanoparticles, thus causing a reduction in the hardness and wear resistance of the coatings.

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Effect of thermal processing on the tribology of nanocrystalline Ni/TiO 2 coatings

A parametric study using Taguchi's fractional-factorial design L 9 (3 4–2 ) was conducted to optimise the parameters of an electric wire arc spray process to develop coating for improved wear resistance of sugar mill rollers using an iron based material, iron–chromium–boron (FeCrB). Four spray parameters; current, voltage, air pressure and spray distance were evaluated using the Taguchi design. The coatings were characterised by their hardness, micro-structure and abrasive wear. The results of the study indicated that an optimum wear rate could be achieved from the relationships that exist between all parameters evaluated while achieving satisfactory hardness. The present Taguchi analysis employed in this investigation led to the optimised process parameters for the iron–chromium–boron coating with the lowest mass loss over a two-hour period. The coating should be a good candidate for application to sugar mill rollers.

Optimisation of the electric wire arc-spraying process for improved wear resistance of sugar mill roller shells

Fibres from different parts of empty fruit bunch, which is a major solid waste from oil palm processing, were subjected to different pretreatments and characterised for variability in length and diameter, mechanical performance, and proximate and trace element composition. Morphology and surface composition of the fibres were determined using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray. The fibres were further treated with KOH-boric acid and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. Fibre yield was higher for spikelet than stalk. Fibres from stalk were generally larger in diameter and showed significant differences in potassium and galacturonic acid content, strength, and rigidity. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the widespread occurrence of silica bodies as well as significant differences in the microstructure of stalk and spikelet fibres. Stalk fibres showed a greater level of porosity than spikelet fibres in the section perpendicular to the major axis. The morphology of KOH-boric acid treated fibres suggested higher recalcitrance of spikelet fibres. The significant differences between fibres from stalk and spikelet suggest that EFB, used as feedstock for biobased industries, requires more systematic characterization and separation into stalk and spikelet, which may lead to a more judicious exploitation of this valuable waste.

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Extraction and Characterization of Fibres from the Stalk and Spikelets of Empty Fruit Bunch

Transient liquid phase (TLP) diffusion bonding of Al-6061 containing 15 vol pct alumina particles was carried out at 873 K (600 °C) using electrodeposited nanocomposite coatings as the interlayer. Joint formation was attributed to the solid-state diffusion of Ni into the Al-6061 alloy followed by eutectic formation and isothermal solidification of the joint region. An examination of the joint region using an electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy (WDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed the formation of intermetallic phases such as Al3Ni, Al9FeNi, and Ni3Si within the joint zone. The result indicated that the incorporation of 50 nm Al2O3 dispersions into the interlayer can be used to improve the joint significantly.

A Study of the Effect of Nanosized Particles on Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Bonding Al6061 Metal–Matrix Composite (MMC) Using Ni/Al 2 O 3 Nanocomposite Interlayer

Kavian O. Cooke

Papers

Transient liquid phase diffusion bonding Al-6061 using nano-dispersed Ni coatings

Effect of thermal processing on the tribology of nanocrystalline Ni/TiO 2 coatings

Optimisation of the electric wire arc-spraying process for improved wear resistance of sugar mill roller shells

Extraction and Characterization of Fibres from the Stalk and Spikelets of Empty Fruit Bunch

A Study of the Effect of Nanosized Particles on Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Bonding Al6061 Metal–Matrix Composite (MMC) Using Ni/Al 2 O 3 Nanocomposite Interlayer