In recent decades, several detector technologies have been developed with the quest to directly detect dark matter interactions and to test one of the most important unsolved questions in modern physics. The sensitivity of these experiments has improved with a tremendous speed due to a constant development of the detectors and analysis methods, proving uniquely suited devices to solve the dark matter puzzle, as all other discovery strategies can only indirectly infer its existence. Despite the overwhelming evidence for dark matter from cosmological indications at small and large scales, clear evidence for a particle explaining these observations remains absent. This review summarises the status of direct dark matter searches, focusing on the detector technologies used to directly detect a dark matter particle producing recoil energies in the keV energy scale. The phenomenological signal expectations, main background sources, statistical treatment of data and calibration strategies are discussed.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0954-3899/43/1/013001/pdf

Dark matter direct-detection experiments

This paper describes the design and construction of the MicroBooNE liquid argon time projection chamber and associated systems. MicroBooNE is the first phase of the Short Baseline Neutrino program, located at Fermilab, and will utilize the capabilities of liquid argon detectors to examine a rich assortment of physics topics. In this document details of design specifications, assembly procedures, and acceptance tests are reported.

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Design and Construction of the MicroBooNE Detector

This article reviews the progress made over the last 20 years in the development and applications of liquid xenon detectors in particle physics, astrophysics, and medical imaging experiments. A summary of the fundamental properties of liquid xenon as radiation detection medium, in light of the most current theoretical and experimental information is first provided. After an introduction of the different type of liquid xenon detectors, a review of past, current, and future experiments using liquid xenon to search for rare processes and to image radiation in space and in medicine is given. Each application is introduced with a survey of the underlying scientific motivation and experimental requirements before reviewing the basic characteristics and expected performance of each experiment. Within this decade it appears likely that large volume liquid xenon detectors operated in different modes will contribute to answering some of the most fundamental questions in particle physics, astrophysics, and cosmology, fulfilling the most demanding detection challenges. From detectors based solely on liquid xenon (LXe) scintillation, such as in the MEG experiment for the search of the rare ''{mu}{yields}e{gamma}'' decay, currently the largest liquid xenon detector in operation, and in the XMASS experiment for dark matter detection, to the class ofmore » time projection chambers which exploit both scintillation and ionization of LXe, such as in the XENON dark matter search experiment and in the Enriched Xenon Observatory for neutrinoless double beta decay, unrivaled performance and important contributions to physics in the next few years are anticipated.« less

/pdf/liquid-xenon-detectors-for-particle-physics-and-astrophysics-5374ex693b.pdf

Liquid Xenon Detectors for Particle Physics and Astrophysics

We review the current status of liquid noble gas radiation detectors with energy threshold in the keV range, which are of interest for direct dark matter searches, measurement of coherent neutrino scattering and other low energy particle physics experiments. Emphasis is given to the operation principles and the most important instrumentation aspects of these detectors, principally of those operated in the double-phase mode. Recent technological advances and relevant developments in photon detection and charge readout are discussed in the context of their applicability to those experiments.

Liquid noble gas detectors for low energy particle physics

The existence of dark matter as evidenced by numerous indirect observations is one of the most important indications that there must be physics beyond the Standard Model of particle physics. This article reviews the concepts of direct detection of dark matter in the form of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) in ultra-sensitive detectors located in underground laboratories, discusses the expected signatures, detector concepts, and how the stringent low-background requirements are achieved. Finally, it summarizes the current status of the field and provides an outlook on the years to come.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6471/ab2ea5/pdf

Direct detection of WIMP dark matter: concepts and status

The time dependence of luminescence in liquid argon and xenon has been studied for electron, $\ensuremath{\alpha}$-particle, and fission-fragment excitation. The lifetimes of low excited molecular states ($^{1}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$ and $^{3}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$) do not depend on the density of excited species while the intensity ratio of $^{1}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$ to $^{3}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$ is found to be larger at higher deposited energy density. The lifetimes obtained for the $^{1}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$ and $^{3}\ensuremath{\Sigma}_{u}^{+}$ states are 7.0 \ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{} 1.0 nsec and 1.6 \ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{} 0.1 \ensuremath{\mu}sec, respectively, in liquid argon, and 4.3 \ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{} 0.6 and 22.0 \ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{} 2.0 nsec, respectively, in liquid xenon. The mechanism of quenching of luminescence at a high density of excited species in liquid argon and xenon is discussed.

Effect of ionization density on the time dependence of luminescence from liquid argon and xenon

A liquid xenon proportional scintillation counter

Proportional Counter Filled with Highly Purified Liquid Xenon

Scintillation yields per unit energy deposited by relativistic heavy ions in liquid argon have been measured. They are (1.41 ± 0.07) for 613 MeV/n Ne ions and (1.39 ± 0.07) for 705 MeV/n Fe ions, if the value is normalized to unity for 5.3 MeV alpha particles. These results show that the scintillation intensity for relativistic heavy ions in liquid argon is proportional to the deposited energy, that is, to Z12, where Z1 is the nuclear charge of heavy ions. Furthermore, the variation of ionization and scintillation in liquid argon has been investigated as a function of electric field using relativistic Ne and Fe ions. It is shown that a linear combination of ionization signal I and scintillation signal S, I + aS, is proportional to the deposited energy, independently of electric field strength and types of incident particles. This suggests that if we use both signals, we may construct a massive calorimeter that can be used for nuclear reactions induced by relativistic heavy ions.

Scintillation yields by relativistic heavy ions and the relation between ionization and scintillation in liquid argon

A “pure” liquid argon calorimeter has been constructed with the aim of approaching the ideal high energy resolution. The electrode system of the calorimeter consists of 192 G-10 plates of 1.2 mm thickness placed at intervals of 9mm. The sensitive volume of the calorimeter is 0.93 m2 × 2.0 m. An energy resolution of (2.4±0.2)% (m.m.s.) was achieved of these formulas is discussed. compared to the values predicted by Waseda's and Serpukhov's formulas. The validity of these formulas is discussed.

Kimiaki Masuda

Papers

Effect of ionization density on the time dependence of luminescence from liquid argon and xenon

A liquid xenon proportional scintillation counter

Proportional Counter Filled with Highly Purified Liquid Xenon

Scintillation yields by relativistic heavy ions and the relation between ionization and scintillation in liquid argon

A pure liquid argon calorimeter with high energy resolution for electromagnetic showers