The physical metallurgy of steels

The transformation hardening of steel surfaces by laser beams—I. Hypo-eutectoid steels

X-ray diffraction (XRD)-based modified Warren–Averbach (MWA) analysis, in comparison with the Williamson–Hall (WH) analysis, was applied to 0.3 mass% carbon martensitic steels, as-quenched and subsequently tempered at various temperatures, to give their dislocation densities. For the as-quenched martensite, the WH method gives a value of around 2.0×1016 m−2, which could be overestimated. Meanwhile, the MWA method gives a value of around 6.3×1015 m−2, which is below the possible upper limit of dislocation density, 1016 m−2. The MWA-derived value for the as-quenched steel seems to be 1.6–4.8 times higher than those expected from the precedent results derived by transmission electron microscope (TEM) observations. However, considering that the TEM-derived value gives the microscopically local average while the XRD-derived value gives the macroscopic average, such discrepancy between the TEM-derived value and MWA-derived value is tolerable. For the steels tempered at 723 K and 923 K, the MWA and WH methods give comparable values ranging in 1014 m−2, where the rearrangement of dislocation structure is observed by TEM. However, in these steels where the XRD peaks are narrower and the instrumental width of the present XRD system could be significant, care should be taken over the peak width correction.

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/50/6/50_6_875/_pdf

Comparison of the Dislocation Density in Martensitic Steels Evaluated by Some X-ray Diffraction Methods

The isothermal and nonisothermal tempering of martensite in dual-phase (DP) steels was investigated mainly by analytical transmission electron microscopy, and the effect on softening behavior was studied. The isothermal tempering resulted in coarsening and spheroidization of cementite and complete recovery of laths. However, nonisothermal tempering manifested fine quasi-spherical intralath and platelike interlath cementite, decomposition of retained austenite, and partial recovery of laths. The distinct characteristic of nonisothermal tempering was primarily attributed to the synergistic effect of delay in cementite precipitation and insufficient time for diffusion of carbon due to rapid heating that delays the third stage of tempering. The finer size and platelike morphology of cementite coupled with partial recovery of lath resulted in reduced softening in nonisothermal tempering compared to severe softening in isothermal tempering due to large spheroidized cementite and complete recovery of lath substructure. The substitutional content of precipitated cementite in nonisothermal tempering was correlated to the richness of particular steel chemistry. Softening resistance during nonisothermal tempering was related to DP steel chemistry, i.e., Cr and Mn content. Fine cementite and less decomposed martensite in rich chemistry confer high resistance to softening compared to leaner chemistries, which indicated severe decomposition of martensite with coarser cementite.

Tempering of Martensite in Dual-Phase Steels and Its Effects on Softening Behavior

This article reviews the strengthening and fracture mechanisms that operate in carbon and low-alloy carbon steels with martensitic microstructures tempered at low temperatures, between 150 °C and 200 °C. The carbon-dependent strength of low-temperature-tempered (LTT) martensite is shown to be a function of the dynamic strain hardening of the dislocation and transition carbide substructure of martensite crystals. In steels containing up to 0.5 mass pct carbon, fracture occurs by ductile mechanisms of microvoid formation at dispersions of second-phase particles in the matrix of the strain-hardened tempered martensite. Steels containing more than 0.5 mass pct carbon with LTT martensitic microstructures are highly susceptible to brittle intergranular fracture at prior austenite grain boundaries. The mechanisms of the intergranular fracture are discussed, and approaches that have evolved to minimize such fracture and to utilize the high strength of high-carbon hardened steels are described.

Deformation and fracture in martensitic carbon steels tempered at low temperatures

This paper presents the results of a systematic study of the effect of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium on the hardness of martensite in low to medium carbon steels tempered for one hour at 100°F (56°C) intervals in the range 400 to 1300°F (204 to 704°C). Results show that the as-quenched hardness depends solely on carbon content. On tempering, the effect of carbon on hardness decreases markedly with increasing tempering temperature. Studies of carbon-0.5 manganese steels showed that the incremental increase in hardness from 0.5 pct manganese after a given tempering treatment was independent of carbon content. Based on this result, studies of the effects of the other alloying elements were made using a 0.2 or 0.3 pct carbon, 0.3 to 0.5 pct manganese steel base composition. The hardness of the resulting tempered martensite was assumed to be due to a given alloy addition, and when two or more alloying elements were added, their effects were assumed to be additive. Each of the seven alloying elements increased the hardness of tempered martensite by varying amounts, the increase being greater as more of each element was present. Nickel and phosphorus have substantially the same effect at all tempering temperatures. Manganese has essentially the same hardening effect at any temperature in the range 700 (371°C) to 1300°F; silicon is most effective at 600°F (316°C), chromium at 800°F (427°C), molybdenum at 1000 to 1100°F (538 to 592°C), and vanadium at 1200°F (649°C). Using the data obtained, a procedure is established for calculating the hardness of tempered martensite for carbon and alloy steel compositions in the range studied and for any combination of tempering time and temperature.

L. F. Porter

Papers

Hardness of tempered martensite in carbon and low-alloy steels