Most analyses of reaction time (RT) data are conducted by using the statistical techniques with which psychologists are most familiar, such as analysis of variance on the sample mean. Unfortunately, these methods are usually inappropriate for RT data, because they have little power to detect genuine differences in RT between conditions. In addition, some statistical approaches can, under certain circumstances, result in findings that are artifacts of the analysis method itself. A corpus of research has shown more effective analytical methods, such as analyzing the whole RT distribution, although this research has had limited influence. The present article will summarize these ad’ances in methods for analyzing RT data.

Effective Analysis of Reaction Time Data.

Where do equivalence relations come from? One possible answer is that they arise directly from the reinforcement contingency. That is to say, a reinforcement contingency produces two types of outcome: (a) 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, or n-term units of analysis that are known, respectively, as operant reinforcement, simple discrimination, conditional discrimination, second-order conditional discrimination, and so on; and (b) equivalence relations that consist of ordered pairs of all positive elements that participate in the contingency. This conception of the origin of equivalence relations leads to a number of new and verifiable ways of conceptualizing equivalence relations and, more generally, the stimulus control of operant behavior. The theory is also capable of experimental disproof.

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Equivalence relations and the reinforcement contingency.

A structured forensic interview protocol improves the quality and informativeness of investigative interviews with children: a review of research using the NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol

This article systematically reviews the research design and methodological characteristics of single-case experimental design (SCED) research published in peer-reviewed journals between 2000 and 2010. SCEDs provide researchers with a flexible and viable alternative to group designs with large sample sizes. However, methodological challenges have precluded widespread implementation and acceptance of the SCED as a viable complementary methodology to the predominant group design. This article includes a description of the research design, measurement, and analysis domains distinctive to the SCED; a discussion of the results within the framework of contemporary standards and guidelines in the field; and a presentation of updated benchmarks for key characteristics (e.g., baseline sampling, method of analysis), and overall, it provides researchers and reviewers with a resource for conducting and evaluating SCED research. The results of the systematic review of 409 studies suggest that recently published SCED research is largely in accordance with contemporary criteria for experimental quality. Analytic method emerged as an area of discord. Comparison of the findings of this review with historical estimates of the use of statistical analysis indicates an upward trend, but visual analysis remains the most common analytic method and also garners the most support among those entities providing SCED standards. Although consensus exists along key dimensions of single-case research design, and researchers appear to be practicing within these parameters, there remains a need for further evaluation of assessment and sampling techniques and data analytic methods.

Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards.

The field of behavioral economics has made important inroads into the understanding of substance use disorders through the concept of reinforcer pathology. Reinforcer pathology refers to the joint effects of (a) the persistently high valuation of a reinforcer, broadly defined to include tangible commodities and experiences, and/or (b) the excessive preference for the immediate acquisition or consumption of a commodity despite long-term negative outcomes. From this perspective, reinforcer pathology results from the recursive interactions of endogenous person-level variables and exogenous environment-level factors. The current review describes the basic principles of behavioral economics that are central to reinforcer pathology, the processes that engender reinforcer pathology, and the approaches and procedures that can repair reinforcement pathologies. The overall goal of this review is to present a new understanding of substance use disorders as viewed by recent advances in behavioral economics.

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The Behavioral Economics of Substance Use Disorders: Reinforcement Pathologies and Their Repair

THE STRUCTURE OF EQUIVALENCE CLASSES CAN BE COMPLETELY DESCRIBED BY FOUR PARAMETERS: class size, number of nodes, the distribution of "singles" among nodes, and directionality of training. Class size refers to the number of stimuli in a class. Nodes are stimuli linked by training to at least two other stimuli. Singles are stimuli linked by training to only one other stimulus. The distribution of singles refers to the number of singles linked by training to each node. Directionality of training refers to the use of stimuli as samples and as comparison stimuli in training. These four parameters define the different ways in which the stimuli in a class can be organized, and thus provide a basis for systematically characterizing the properties of stimuli in a given equivalence class. The four parameters can also be used to account for the development of individual differences that are commonly characterized in terms of "understanding" and connotative meaning.Methods are described for generating all possible combinations of parameter values, and a formula is introduced which specifies all of the parameter values for an equivalence class. Its utility for interrelating experimental procedures is demonstrated by analyzing a number of representative experiments that have addressed equivalence-class formation.

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The structure of equivalence classes.

A four-member equivalence class (A----B----C----D) can be formed by training AB, BC, and CD The nodal stimuli, B and C, mediate all of the derivative (transitive and equivalence) relations in the class The derivative relations AC, CA, BD, and DB are separated by one node, whereas AD and DA are separated by two nodes How do the number of nodes that separate the stimuli in a derivative relation influence the induction of stimulus control exerted by that relation? Seven college students learned two four-member classes made up of nonsense syllables After training, all derivative relations were presented repeatedly without informative feedback Stimulus control exerted by each derivative relation was assessed concurrently For the 7 subjects, control exerted by the derivative relations increased gradually with repeated presentations With 6 of the 7 subjects, the one-node relations exerted more control than the two-node relations during the process However, the disparity between the one- and two-node relations decreased with repeated presentations Eventually, all derivative relations exerted complete control The control exerted by derivative relations during induction was inversely related to the number of nodes separating the terms in the derivative relations These results demonstrate that nodal distance is a determinant of the relatedness of stimuli in equivalence classes The findings are discussed in terms of remote association, semantic memory networks, and the study of transitive inference

The effects of nodality on the formation of equivalence classes.

When a number of two-stimulus relations are established through training within a set of stimuli, other two-stimulus relations often emerge in the same set without direct training. These, termed “transitive stimulus relations,” have been demonstrated with a variety of visual and auditory stimuli. The phenomenon has served as a behavioral model for explaining the emergence of rudimentary comprehension and reading skills, and the development of generative syntactic repertoires. This article considers the range of relations that can arise between a given number of stimuli in a class, the number of directly established two-stimulus relations necessary for the emergence of transitive relations, the forms that training sets of stimuli can take, and the number of transitive two-stimulus relations that can be induced without direct training. The procedures needed to establish and assess transitive stimulus control, the possible interactions between the training and testing procedures, and the constrainst these interactions place upon the analysis of transitive stimulus control are also examined. The present analysis indicates that in a transitivity test, choice among such stimuli may be controlled by (1) the relation between the sample and the positive comparison stimulus (transitive stimulus control), (2) the relation between the sample and the negative comparison stimulus (S- rule control), and (3) possible discriminative properties that may inadvertently be established in the positive and negative comparison stimuli (valence control). Methods are described for distinguishing these three forms of stimulus control.

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Stimulus equivalence and transitive associations: A methodological analysis.

Twelve subjects were trained to select one of two stimuli from a pair (the B pair) when presented with one of two stimuli from another pair (the A pair), thus establishing two AB relations, A1-B1 and A2-B2. In a similar fashion, additional stimuli were used to establish BC, CD, and DE relations. Trials used to train all relations occurred in each session. Once performances were established, probe trials were introduced that tested for the emergence of untrained relations (e.g., B1-D1 or A1-E1). These emergent relations were categorized according to nodal distance (i.e., the number of stimuli across which transitivity would have to hold in order for the relation to emerge). For example, a test for A2-C2 crosses one node (B2), whereas a test for A1-E1 crosses three nodes (B1, C1, and D1). Only 2 of the subjects formed equivalence classes. The evocation of class-appropriate responding by each emergent-relation probe was an inverse function of nodal distance for all 12 subjects. In addition, performance on the originally trained relations was disrupted by the introduction of probes. The 2 subjects who exhibited equivalence classes were then trained to make different numbers of key presses in the presence of each of the four A and E stimuli. In a response-transfer test, the B, C, and D stimuli evoked the responses trained to the A and E stimuli in the same equivalence class. Likelihood of class-appropriate responses was an inverse function of nodal distance, and this pattern persisted across testing. Reaction times in the transfer test were an inverted U-shaped function of nodal distance. Because training of the baseline relations occurred concurrently and the B, C, and D stimuli were presented an equal number of times before the transfer test, the test performances illustrate effects of nodal distance that were not confounded by order or amount of experience with the stimuli. The results imply that ordered, sequential exposure to individual stimulus relations may facilitate the development of equivalence classes and that the relatedness of stimuli within an equivalence class is a relatively permanent inverse function of nodal distance.

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Maintained nodal-distance effects in equivalence classes

Three-member equivalence classes were formed using a complex-to-simple protocol with 17 subjects. After AB and BC were trained, CA equivalence was tested. Failure of CA was followed by BA symmetry tests and retraining of the baseline relations when needed. Subsequent CA tests were then conducted. The classes were also formed using a simple-to-complex protocol with 18 other subjects. With this protocol AB was trained, symmetry was tested with BA, BC was trained, symmetry was tested with CB, transitivity was tested with AC, and finally equivalence was tested with CA. The subjects given the simple-to-complex protocol formed classes with less intersubject variability and more efficiency. These enhancements were attributed to the induction of all relevant prerequisites prior to each type of test (symmetry, transitivity, and equivalence). In Experiment 2, class size was increased to four and then five members through a single protocol for all subjects

Lanny Fields

Papers

The structure of equivalence classes.

The effects of nodality on the formation of equivalence classes.

Stimulus equivalence and transitive associations: A methodological analysis.

Maintained nodal-distance effects in equivalence classes

Effects of test order on intersubject variability during equivalence class formation