In this article, we review and evaluate recent management research on the effects of different types of diversity in group composition at various organizational levels (i.e., boards of directors, top management groups, and organizational task groups) for evidence of common patterns. We argue that diversity in the composition of organizational groups affects outcomes such as turnover and performance through its impact on affective, cognitive, communication, and symbolic processes.

Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organizational Groups

Research on organizational diversity, heterogeneity, and related concepts has proliferated in the past decade, but few consistent findings have emerged. We argue that the construct of diversity requires closer examination. We describe three distinctive types of diversity: separation, variety, and disparity. Failure to recognize the meaning, maximum shape, and assumptions underlying each type has held back theory development and yielded ambiguous research conclusions. We present guidelines for conceptualization, measurement, and theory testing, highlighting the special case of demographic diversity

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What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations.

In this paper we present an integrative model of the relationships among diversity, conflict, and performance, and we test that model with a sample of 45 teams. Findings show that diversity shapes conflict and that conflict, in turn, shapes performance, but these linkages have subtleties. Functional background diversity drives task conflict, but multiple types of diversity drive emotional conflict. Race and tenure diversity are positively associated with emotional conflict, while age diversity is negatively associated with such conflict. Task routineness and group longevity moderate these relationships. Results further show that task conflict has more favorable effects on cognitive task performance than does emotional conflict. Overall, these patterns suggest a complex link between work group diversity and work group functioning.

Exploring the Black Box: An Analysis of Work Group Diversity, Conflict and Performance

This review examines recent theoretical and empirical developments in the leadership literature, beginning with topics that are currently receiving attention in terms of research, theory, and practice. We begin by examining authentic leadership and its development, followed by work that takes a cognitive science approach. We then examine new-genre leadership theories, complexity leadership, and leadership that is shared, collective, or distributed. We examine the role of relationships through our review of leader member exchange and the emerging work on followership. Finally, we examine work that has been done on substitutes for leadership, servant leadership, spirituality and leadership, cross-cultural leadership, and e-leadership. This structure has the benefit of creating a future focus as well as providing an interesting way to examine the development of the field. Each section ends with an identification of issues to be addressed in the future, in addition to the overall integration of the literature we provide at the end of the article.

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Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions

The authors reviewed the application of consensual qualitative research (CQR) in 27 studies published since the method's introduction to the field in 1997 by C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, and E. N. Williams (1997). After first describing the core components and the philosophical underpinnings of CQR, the authors examined how it has been applied in terms of the consensus process, biases, research teams, data collection, data analysis, and writing up the results and discussion sections of articles. On the basis of problems that have arisen in each of these areas, the authors made recommendations for modifications of the method. The authors concluded that CQR is a viable qualitative method and suggest several ideas for research on the method itself.

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Consensual Qualitative Research: An Update

The interaction process and performance of culturally homogeneous and culturally diverse groups were studied for 17 weeks. Initially, homogeneous groups scored higher on both process and performance effectiveness. Over time, both types of group showed improvement on process and performance, and the between-group differences converged. By week 17, there were no differences in process or overall performance, but the heterogeneous groups scored higher on two task measures, Implications for management and future research are given.

Cultural diversity's impact on interaction process and performance: comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups

Cette recherche remet en cause l'idee preconcue qui voudrait que la qualite d'une decision prise en groupe ne puisse, au mieux, qu'egaler celle prise par le meilleur des membres du groupe. Pour cela, contrairement a la majorite des travaux precedents, sont utilises des groupes pre-existants a l'etude (non-artificiels), resolvant des problemess pertinents dans le contexte (reponses a des items de tests) et portant reellement a consequence (pris en compte dans le cursus universitaire). La variable dimension groupe est egalement manipulee

A realistic test of individual versus group consensus decision making.

The primary objective of this study was to examine the extent to which increased experience in working in a group would affect group versus individual problem solving. The duration and intensity of group involvement for subjects (over 30 hr) was extensive. In addition, the reward system provided a clear and direct tie between individual or group performance and a significant outcome (i.e., course grades). The decision-making task had a great deal in common with many of the aspects of group decision making in organizations. Results were overwhelming in favor of group decision making across time, given this type of task.

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/76/6/803.pdf

Member competence, group interaction, and group decision making: A longitudinal study.

The primary objective of this article is to provide readers with guidance for designing effective group assignments and activities for classes and workshops. In doing so, we examine the forces that foster social loafing (uneven participation) in learning groups and identify four key variables that must be managed in order to create a group environment that is conducive for broad-based member participation and learning. We then discuss the impact of various types of activities and assignments on learning and group cohesiveness. Finally, we present a checklist that has been designed to evaluate the effectiveness of group assignments in a wide variety of instructional settings and subject areas. Over the last few years group activities have become increasingly popular. However, instructors and workshop leaders frequently report three common problems that greatly reduce the effectiveness of small-group based learning activities. Two of the three problems typically occur while students or workshop participants are actually engaged in the group work. Probably the most common problem is that one or two vocal individuals often dominate the discussions to the point that quieter members’ ideas are either unexpressed or largely ignored. Alternatively, groups frequently have difficulty staying focused on the assigned task because they get side-tracked on inconsequential or irrelevant details. The third problem occurs when groups are reporting the results of their work to the total class. Even when there has been a high level of engagement in the small groups subsequent whole-class discussions sometimes “fall flat.” Based on our experience, these “problems” are actually symptoms that are almost always the result of poorly conceived group tasks. Further, we believe that all three of these problems can be avoided if classroom teachers and faculty developers use activities that are designed to take into account: 1) the developmental level of the groups in which they will be used and, 2) the impact of the activity on the cohesiveness of the groups. With this in mind, our primary objective in writing this article is to provide a set of conceptual tools to provide guidance for designing effective group assignments and activities for classes and workshops. Overall, the most important idea in the paper is that the most reliable way to gauge the learning value of group assignments is to examine their impact on group cohesiveness.

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Designing Effective Group Activities: Lessons for Classroom Teaching and Faculty Development

of credit hours that can be taught by graduate faculty. In attempting to cope with these problems, many institutions have been forced to substantially increase class sizes to capitalize on the economies of scale. Unfortunately, this move to larger classes has often led to changes in both the instructional strategies that are employed and the content of the courses that are being taught. For example, the great majority of large classes are taught by the lecture method and student performance is evaluated through the use of true/false and multiple choice exams. This curtails both the

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Larry K. Michaelsen

Papers

Cultural diversity's impact on interaction process and performance: comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups

A realistic test of individual versus group consensus decision making.

Member competence, group interaction, and group decision making: A longitudinal study.

Designing Effective Group Activities: Lessons for Classroom Teaching and Faculty Development

Team Learning: a Potential Solution To the Problems of Large Classes: