Schizophrenia was initially defined as “dementia praecox” by E. Kraepelin, which implies progressive deterioration. However, recent studies have revealed that early effective intervention may lead to social and functional recovery in schizophrenia. In this review, we provide an overview of current concepts in schizophrenia and pathophysiological hypotheses. In addition, we present recent findings from clinical and basic research on schizophrenia. Recent neuroimaging and neurophysiological studies have consistently revealed specific biological differences in the structure and function of the brain in those with schizophrenia. From a basic research perspective, to determine the essential pathophysiology underlying schizophrenia, it is crucial that findings from all lines of inquiry—induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)‐derived neural cells from patients, murine models expressing genetic mutations identified in patients, and patient clinical data—be integrated to contextualize the analysis results. However, the findings remain insufficient to serve as a diagnostic tool or a biomarker for predicting schizophrenia‐related outcomes. Collaborations to conduct clinical research based on the patients' and their families' values are just beginning, and further development is expected.

Toward recovery in schizophrenia: Current concepts, findings, and future research directions

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) are progressive degenerative disorders of the neurological system with significant social impact worldwide. Their detection at the initial stage is necessary to provide proper therapeutic interventions. Biosensors have emerged as one of the next-generation tools for detecting and monitoring physiochemical changes associated with neurological disorders. This article discusses the current status and challenges of different state-of-the-art sensors which can detect NDD biomarkers. A brief overview of developing advanced biosensors with the help of nanotechnology integration, mainly polymer-based functional nanomaterials, has been mentioned as the prospect of these biosensors for NDD detection and management.

Towards Modern-Age Advanced Sensors for the Management of Neurodegenerative Disorders: Current Status, Challenges and Prospects

Diving into the subcortex: The potential of chronic subcortical sensing for unravelling basal ganglia function and optimization of deep brain stimulation

Purpose of review Noninvasive brain stimulation has emerged in the last three decades as a promising treatment for patients with antipsychotic-resistant symptoms of schizophrenia. This review updates the latest progress in the use of noninvasive brain stimulation to treat schizophrenia symptoms. Recent findings Several recently published randomized-controlled trials support a long-lasting clinical effect of stimulation techniques on schizophrenia symptoms. In addition, efforts have been made in recent months to improve efficacy through several optimization strategies. Studies have tested new parameters of stimulation, such as theta burst stimulation, and alternative cortical or subcortical targets and have reported encouraging results. New forms of electrical stimulations such as alternating and random noise stimulation, have also been studied and have shown clinical and cognitive usefulness for patients. Accelerated stimulation protocols, and prospects could arise with deeper stimulation strategies. Summary Using brain stimulation to treat symptoms of schizophrenia seems promising and the great flexibility of the stimulation parameters leaves much room for developing optimization strategies and improving its effectiveness. Further studies need to identify the optimal parameters to maximize response rate. 

Recent advances in noninvasive brain stimulation for schizophrenia

Invasive Computational Psychiatry

The use of deep brain stimulation (DBS) in treatment resistant patients with schizophrenia is of considerable current interest, but where to site the electrodes is challenging. This article reviews rationales for electrode placement in schizophrenia based on evidence for localized brain abnormality in the disorder and the targets that have been proposed and employed to date. The nucleus accumbens and the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex are of interest on the grounds that they are sites of potential pathologically increased brain activity in schizophrenia and so susceptible to the local inhibitory effects of DBS; both sites have been employed in trials of DBS in schizophrenia. Based on other lines of reasoning, the ventral tegmental area, the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the habenula have also been proposed and in some cases employed. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has not been suggested, probably reflecting evidence that it is underactive rather than overactive in schizophrenia. The hippocampus is also of theoretical interest but there is no clear functional imaging evidence that it shows overactivity in schizophrenia. On current evidence, the nucleus accumbens may represent the strongest candidate for DBS electrode placement in schizophrenia, with the substantia nigra pars reticulata also showing promise in a single case report; the ventral tegmental area is also of potential interest, though it remains untried.

Laura Salgado

Papers

Target selection for deep brain stimulation in treatment resistant schizophrenia