A solution to get the problem off, have you found it? Really? What kind of solution do you resolve the problem? From what sources? Well, there are so many questions that we utter every day. No matter how you will get the solution, it will mean better. You can take the reference from some books. And the atlas of medical helminthology and protozoology is one book that we really recommend you to read, to get more solutions in solving this problem.

https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/1/6000/49.1.full.pdf

Atlas of Medical Helminthology and Protozoology

Geese, ducks, mallards, and swans are birds of the order Anseriformes, which are found in the wild, in zoos and parks, and raised for meat consumption. Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis sp., and Neospora caninum are protozoans of several species of animals. Wild and domestic birds can serve as intermediate hosts, disseminators and potential sources of infection of these protozoa to humans through contaminated meat. The aims of this study were: (i) to perform a serological survey of T. gondii, Sarcocystis sp. and N. caninum in geese (Anser sp.) from public parks and from captivity and (ii) to compare seroprevalence between these two locations. Antibodies were detected by Immunofluorescence antibody test using the serum of 149 geese. Antibodies to Sarcocystis sp., T. gondii, and N. caninum were detected in 28.18%, 18% and 0.67% of geese, respectively; 57% of geese from urban parks and 26.53% of geese from captivity were seropositive for at least one protozoa. The results indicate environmental contamination, particularly for the occurrence of antibodies against T. gondii – a zoonosis that causes toxoplasmosis and is transmitted through oocyte ingestion. This is the first serological survey of T. gondii, Sarcocystis sp. and N. caninum in geese from urban parks in Curitiba, Brazil.

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Serosurvey of Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis sp. and Neospora caninum in geese (Anser sp.) from urban parks and captivity.

Occasional screening of food and water quality available to organisms in protected areas could be beneficial to their successful conservation. This is important for areas receiving regular human visitors and exhibiting activities that may be detrimental to ecosystem health. This study determined the intestinal protozoan species harboured by insectivorous and granivorous birds within the Jos Wildlife Park, Nigeria and whether the two avian feeding guilds are more susceptible to protozoan infection through water or food (grass seeds and insects). Special boxes were used to collect faecal samples from trapped birds. Samples were later analysed in the laboratory for protozoans. Both food and water utilised by the birds in the area were microscopically screened. The composition and abundance of intestinal protozoans between the two feeding guilds did not show significant differences. However, considering parasite species individually, the degree of infection by protozoans such as Giardia lamblia was highly related to the range of infection sources that a feeding guild was exposed to. The composition of parasites observed in the two feeding guilds was strongly linked to both water bodies and avian diet obtainable in the Park. These observations showed that birds in the Park are orally susceptible to infection with protozoans, some of which have been reported to cause health implications in birds. Thus, any measure to curtail environmental contamination by the parasites may improve ecosystem health and survival of avian species in the Park.

Assessment of potential sources of protozoan contamination between two avian feeding guilds in a conservation area

Monitoring the distribution of bird species across a landscape provides information on habitat occupancy and utilization. This study determined the distribution of the five sunbird species (variable sunbird, scarlet-chested sunbird, green-headed sunbird, copper sunbird and pygmy sunbird) known to exist within the Amurum Forest Reserve. Distribution was determined both within and outside the Amurum Forest Reserve and across the habitat types in the area (gallery forest, savannah scrub and rocky outcrop) and anthropogenic scales (roads, houses and farmlands). The study was conducted between September to October 2014 using presence and absence data. A total of 60-sample points were selected using stratified random sampling. The presence or absence of the candidate bird species was determined across all points after two visits. The study revealed the variable sunbird, Cinnyris venustus as the most widely distributed of the five sunbird species this sunbird species also occurred across all habitat types equally as compared to the scarlet-chested sunbird, Chalcomitra senegalensis which was more skewed in distribution towards the rocky outcrop areas of the reserve. The sunbirds also appeared to utilise areas of anthropogenic disturbance when outside the reserve perhaps due to the presence of several green areas outside of the reserve. The uneven distribution of the birds across the landscape may as a result of niche partitioning to avoid competition. Also, lack of presence of the other sunbird species throughout the period of study was linked to their migratory behavior as reported in some literatures. The study re-emphasizes the importance of the Amurum Forest Reserve as a good refuge for birds in the area.

Distribution of sunbird species within and around the Amurum Forest Reserve, Nigeria

This study investigated avian foraging behaviour on the Mistletoe, Tapinanthus sesselifolius with a view to determine whether avian visits to the stem parasitic plant significantly differ between its two common host plant species in the Amurum Forest Reserve, Nigeria namely; Dichrostachys cinerea and Ochna afzelii. Also the study determined whether habitat type and abundnace of the three flower developmental stages of T. sesselifolius (i.e.closed unripe, closed ripe and open flowers) influenced avian visits to T. sesselifolius . Data was obtained using focal observations; 22 individuals of each of the two plant species hosting the Mistletoe T. sesselifolius were selected through stratified sampling. Focal observations to determine avian visits were conducted over a period of 1-hour per individual plant. Flower developmental stages were sampled through direct counts on three randomly selected branches of the parasitic plant. A significant difference was observed in avian visits to T. sesselifolius on the two study host plants with higher mean visits per hour to T. sesselifolius on D. Cinerea. While T. sesselifolius around the gallery forest habitat received significantly more avian visitors than those located in the savannah scrub and rocky outcrop. Also closed ripe flowers had significant effect on avian visits with avian visits increasing significantly to T. sesselifolius having higher numbers of closed ripe flowers. The complex structure of D. cinerea and the dense vegetation structure of the gallery forest could act as buffer against birds of prey and may have encouraged more visits to T. sesselifolius based on these factors. Also, the tamper proof nature of ripe flowers and its high nectar content as observed in previous studies is speculated as reasons for its significant positive effect on avian visits in the study. These observations may have implications on the reproductive potential of the stem parasitic plant since reduced pollinator visits is known to limit pollen deposition and eventual fruit set in plants. Keywords: avian visits, Tapinanthus sesselifolius , host plant, habitat type DOI: 10.7176/JNSR/12-8-01 Publication date: April 30 th 2021

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Longtong G. Turshak

Papers

Assessment of potential sources of protozoan contamination between two avian feeding guilds in a conservation area

Distribution of sunbird species within and around the Amurum Forest Reserve, Nigeria

Variation in Avian Visits on Two Host Plants of the Mistletoe Tapinanthus sesselifolius Depended on Habitat Type and Presence of Matured Flowers