Research on moral judgment has been dominated by rationalist models, in which moral judgment is thought to be caused by moral reasoning. The author gives 4 reasons for considering the hypothesis that moral reasoning does not cause moral judgment; rather, moral reasoning is usually a post hoc construction, generated after a judgment has been reached. The social intuitionist model is presented as an alternative to rationalist models. The model is a social model in that it deemphasizes the private reasoning done by individuals and emphasizes instead the importance of social and cultural influences. The model is an intuitionist model in that it states that moral judgment is generally the result of quick, automatic evaluations (intuitions). The model is more consistent than rationalist models with recent findings in social, cultural, evolutionary, and biological psychology, as well as in anthropology and primatology.

https://www.motherjones.com/files/emotional_dog_and_rational_tail.pdf

The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.

Multiple sets of empirical research findings on guilt are reviewed to evaluate the view that guilt should be understood as an essentially social phenomenon that happens between people as much as it happens inside them. Guilt appears to arise from interpersonal transactions (including transgressions and positive inequities) and to vary significantly with the interpersonal context. In particular, guilt patterns appear to be strongest, most common, and most consistent in the context of communal relationships, which are characterized by expectations of mutual concern. Guilt serves various relationship-enhancing functions, including motivating people to treat partners well and avoid transgressions, minimizing inequities and enabling less powerful partners to get their way, and redistributing emotional distress.

Guilt: An interpersonal approach.

In this article, the literature on sex differences in empathy (denned as vicarious affective responding to the emotional state of another) and related capacities (affective role taking and decoding of nonverbal cues) was reviewed. The literature was organized and discussed according to method used to assess empathy and affective role taking. Where appropriate, meta-analyses were also computed. In general, sex differences in empathy were a function of the methods used to assess empathy. There was a large sex difference favoring women when the measure of empathy was self-report scales; moderate differences (favoring females) were found for reflexive crying and self-report measures in laboratory situations; and no sex differences were evident when the measure of empathy was either physiological or unobtrusive observations of nonverbal reactions to another's emotional state. Moreover, few sex differences were found for children's affective role taking and decoding abilities. Several possible explanations for the pattern of findings are discussed. Among the characteristics that people attribute more frequently to females than to males is the tendency to empathize. This stereotypic perception has most likely been derived from the broader belief that females are more nurturant and interpersonally oriented than are males—a stereotype that itself is a natural consequence of traditional feminine and masculine roles. Sociological and psychological theorists concerned with social behavior generally have not questioned the veracity of sex-role stereotypes related to empathic reactions. In fact, their conceptualizations are entirely consistent with the notion that females are the more empathic sex. For example, sociologists such as Parsons and Bales (1955) have attributed differences in males' and females' behaviors to variations in the traditional roles of the two sexes. According to Parsons and Bales, in the family unit men typically assume an instrumental role; that is, they serve as a liaison between the family and society and see that the tasks needed for

Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities

The construct of empathy may be located conceptually at several different points in the network of interpersonal cognition and emotion We discuss one specific form of emotional empathy—other-focused feelings evoked by perceiving another person in need First, evidence is reviewed suggesting that there are at least two distinct types of congruent emotional responses to perceiving another in need feelings of personal distress (e g, alarmed, upset, worried, disturbed, distressed, troubled, etc) and feelings of empathy (e g, sympathetic, moved, compassionate, tender, warm, softhearted, etc) Next, evidence is reviewed suggesting that these two emotional responses have different motivational consequences Personal distress seems to evoke egoistic motivation to reduce one's own aversive arousal, as a traditional Hullian tension-reduction model would propose Empathy does not The motivation evoked by empathy may instead be altruistic, for the ultimate goal seems to be reduction of the other's need, not reduction of one's own aversive arousal Overall, the recent empirical evidence appears to support the more differentiated view of emotion and motivation proposed long ago by McDougall, not the unitary view proposed by Hull and his followers

/pdf/distress-and-empathy-two-qualitatively-distinct-vicarious-3l6n8t0kp6.pdf

Distress and Empathy: Two Qualitatively Distinct Vicarious Emotions with Different Motivational Consequences

BRYANT, BRENDA K An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1982, 53, 413-425 This study presents the development and validation of an index of empathy for use with children and adolescents 56 first graders, 115 fourth graders, and 87 seventh graders were studied Item means, item total correlations, test-retest reliabilities, correlations testing the relationship of empathy to aggressiveness and acceptance of individual differences, correlations testing the relationship of this adapted index of empathy to other existing measures of empathy as well as to social desirability response set and reading achievement formed the basis of internal, discriminant, convergent, and general construct validation The measure demonstrated satisfactory reliability and preliminary construct validity The study of a subset of items controlling for same-sex versus cross-sex stimulus figures provided the basis for investigating developmental aspects of empathic arousal toward peers of different sexes Overall, the availability of comparable forms of a measure of empathy for use with children, adolescents, and adults will be useful for exploring the developmental antecedents and conditions surrounding the expression of emotional empathy

An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents.

By reading, you can know the knowledge and things more, not only about what you get from people to people. Book will be more trusted. As this moral development and behavior theory research and social issues, it will really give you the good idea to be successful. It is not only for you to be success in certain life you can be successful in everything. The success can be started by knowing the basic knowledge and do actions.

Lynda Henley

Papers

Moral development and behavior : theory, research, and social issues

Time out. A National Study of Juvenile Correctional Programs

Law and the mental health professions : friction at the interface