We describe a new molecular approach to analyzing the genetic diversity of complex microbial populations. This technique is based on the separation of polymerase chain reaction-amplified fragments of genes coding for 16S rRNA, all the same length, by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). DGGE analysis of different microbial communities demonstrated the presence of up to 10 distinguishable bands in the separation pattern, which were most likely derived from as many different species constituting these populations, and thereby generated a DGGE profile of the populations. We showed that it is possible to identify constituents which represent only 1% of the total population. With an oligonucleotide probe specific for the V3 region of 16S rRNA of sulfate-reducing bacteria, particular DNA fragments from some of the microbial populations could be identified by hybridization analysis. Analysis of the genomic DNA from a bacterial biofilm grown under aerobic conditions suggests that sulfate-reducing bacteria, despite their anaerobicity, were present in this environment. The results we obtained demonstrate that this technique will contribute to our understanding of the genetic diversity of uncharacterized microbial populations.

Profiling of complex microbial populations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified genes coding for 16S rRNA

Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation.

Because a natural entity “species” cannot be recognized as a group of strains that is genetically well separated from its phylogenetic neighbors, a pragmatic approach was taken to define a species by a polyphasic approach (L. G. Wayne, D. J. Brenner, R. R. Colwell, P. A. D. Grimont, O. Kandler, M. I. Krichevsky, L. H. Moore, W. E. C. Moore, R. G. E. Murray, E. Stackebrandt, M. P. Starr, and H. G. Truper, Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 37:463-464, 1987), in which a DNA reassociation value of about 70% plays a dominant role. With the establishment of rapid sequence analysis of 16S rRNA and the recognition of its potential to determine the phylogenetic position of any prokaryotic organism, the role of 16S rRNA similarities in the present species definition in bacteriology needs to be clarified. Comparative studies clearly reveal the limitations of the sequence analysis of this conserved gene and gene product in the determination of relationships at the strain level for which DNA-DNA reassociation experiments still constitute the superior method. Since today the primary structure of 16S rRNA is easier to determine than hybridization between DNA strands, the strength of the sequence analysis is to recognize the level at which DNA pairing studies need to be performed, which certainly applies to similarities of 97% and higher.

Taxonomic Note: A Place for DNA-DNA Reassociation and 16S rRNA Sequence Analysis in the Present Species Definition in Bacteriology

The recent advent of DNA sequencing technologies facilitates the use of genome sequencing data that provide means for more informative and precise classification and identification of members of the Bacteria and Archaea. Because the current species definition is based on the comparison of genome sequences between type and other strains in a given species, building a genome database with correct taxonomic information is of paramount need to enhance our efforts in exploring prokaryotic diversity and discovering novel species as well as for routine identifications. Here we introduce an integrated database, called EzBioCloud, that holds the taxonomic hierarchy of the Bacteria and Archaea, which is represented by quality-controlled 16S rRNA gene and genome sequences. Whole-genome assemblies in the NCBI Assembly Database were screened for low quality and subjected to a composite identification bioinformatics pipeline that employs gene-based searches followed by the calculation of average nucleotide identity. As a result, the database is made of 61 700 species/phylotypes, including 13 132 with validly published names, and 62 362 whole-genome assemblies that were identified taxonomically at the genus, species and subspecies levels. Genomic properties, such as genome size and DNA G+C content, and the occurrence in human microbiome data were calculated for each genus or higher taxa. This united database of taxonomy, 16S rRNA gene and genome sequences, with accompanying bioinformatics tools, should accelerate genome-based classification and identification of members of the Bacteria and Archaea. The database and related search tools are available at www.ezbiocloud.net/.

Introducing EzBioCloud: a taxonomically united database of 16S rRNA gene sequences and whole-genome assemblies.

DNA-DNA hybridization (DDH) has been used for nearly 50 years as the gold standard for prokaryotic species circumscriptions at the genomic level. It has been the only taxonomic method that offered a numerical and relatively stable species boundary, and its use has had a paramount influence on how the current classification has been constructed. However, now, in the era of genomics, DDH appears to be an outdated method for classification that needs to be substituted. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) between two genomes seems the most promising method since it mirrors DDH closely. Here we examine the work package JSpecies as a user-friendly, biologist-oriented interface to calculate ANI and the correlation of the tetranucleotide signatures between pairwise genomic comparisons. The results agreed with the use of ANI to substitute DDH, with a narrowed boundary that could be set at ≈95–96%. In addition, the JSpecies package implemented the tetranucleotide signature correlation index, an alignment-free parameter that generally correlates with ANI and that can be of help in deciding when a given pair of organisms should be classified in the same species. Moreover, for taxonomic purposes, the analyses can be produced by simply randomly sequencing at least 20% of the genome of the query strains rather than obtaining their full sequence.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/106/45/19126.full.pdf

M. P. Starr

Papers

Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Reconciliation of Approaches to Bacterial Systematics